Book of Rites

The Book of Rites is a diverse collection of texts of uncertain origin and date that lacks the overall structure found in the other "rites" texts (the Rites of Zhou and the Etiquette and Ceremonial).[1] Some sections consist of definitions of ritual terms, particularly those found in the Etiquette and Ceremonial, while others contain details of the life and teachings of Confucius.[2] Parts of the text have been traced to such pre-Han works as the Xunzi and Lüshi Chunqiu, while others are believed to date from the Former Han period.[3]

During the reign of Qin Shihuang, many of the Confucian classics were destroyed during the 213 BC "Burning of the Books." However, the Qin dynasty collapsed within the decade and Confucian scholars who had memorized the classics or hid written copies recompiled them in the early Han dynasty.[4] The Book of Rites was said to have been fully reconstructed, but the Classic of Music could not be recompiled and fragments principally survive in the "Record of Music" (Yueji) chapter of the Book of Rites.

Since then, other scholars have attempted to redact these first drafts. According to the Book of Sui, Dai De reworked the text in the 1st century BC, reducing the original 214 books to 85 in the "Ritual Records of Dai the Elder" (大戴禮記 Dà Dài Lǐjì), his nephew Dai Sheng further reduced this to 46 books in the "Ritual Records of Dai the Younger" (小戴禮記 Xiǎo Dài Lǐjì), and finally Ma Rong added three books to this bringing the total to 49.[5] Later scholarship has disputed the Book of Sui's account as there is no reliable evidence to attribute these revisions to either Dai De or Dai Sheng, although both of them were Confucian scholars specialising in various texts concerning li.[6] Nevertheless, at this time these texts were still being edited, with new script and old script versions circulating, and the content not yet fixed. However, when Zheng Xuan, a student of Ma Rong, composed his annotated text of the Rites he combined all of the traditions of ritual learning to create a fixed edition of the 49 books which are the standard to this day. Zheng Xuan's annotated edition of the Rites became the basis of the "Right Meaning of the Ritual Records" (禮記正義 Lǐjì Zhèngyì) which was the imperially authorised text and commentary on the Rites established in 653 AD.[7]

In 1993, a copy of the "Black Robes" chapter was found in Tomb 1 of the Guodian Tombs in Jingmen, Hubei. Since the tomb was sealed around 300 BCE, the find reactivated academic arguments about the possible dating of the other Liji chapters by the Warring States period.[8]

Confucius described “Li” as all traditional forms that provided a standard of conduct. “Li” literally means "rites" but it can also be used to refer to "ceremonial" or "rules of conduct.” The term has come to generally be associated with "good form,” "decorum" or "politeness.” Confucius felt that “li” should emphasize the spirit of piety and respect for others through rules of conduct and ceremonies. As outlined in the “Book of Rites,” “li” is meant to restore the significance of traditional forms by looking at the simplicity of the past. Confucius insisted that a standard of conduct that focused on traditional forms would be a way to ease the turmoil of collapsing Zhou state. The absolute power of “li” is displayed in the “Book of Rites”: "Of all things to which the people owe their lives the rites are the most important..."[9] The ideas of “li” were thought to become closely associated with human nature, ethics, and social order as the population integrated “li” into their lives. “Li” is beneficial to society because it guides people to recognize and fulfill their responsibilities toward others.

As a result of the Book of Rites' chapters, using a syncretic system later scholars formed both the Great Learning and the Doctrine of the Mean. These two books were both believed to be written by two of Confucius' disciples one specifically being his grandson. The Neo-Confucian Zhu Xi and his edited versions of the Great Learning and the Doctrine of the Mean influenced the Chinese society to place much more attention on these and two other books creating the Four Books. Following the decision of the Yuan dynasty (followed by the Ming and Qing) to make the Five Classics and the Four Books the orthodox texts of the Confucian traditions, they were the standard textbooks for the state civil examination, from 1313 to 1905, which every educated person had to study intensively. Consequently, the Book of Rites and two of its by-products were large integral parts of the Chinese beliefs and industry for many centuries.

• Buckley Ebrey, Patricia. Confucianism and the Family Rituals in Imperial China. New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1991, ISBN 978-0-691-03150-7
• Chen, Jingpan. Confucius as a Teacher. Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1990, ISBN 978-0-8351-2240-5
• Confucius; James Legge; Chʻu Chai; Winberg Chai. Li Chi: Book of Rites. An encyclopedia of ancient ceremonial usages, religious creeds, and social institutions, New Hyde Park, N.Y., University Books [1967]. (originally published in 1885)
• Creel, H.G. Confucius and the Chinese Way. New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1949
• Dawson, Raymond (1981), Confucius, Great Britain: The Guernsey Press, ISBN 978-0-19-287536-5.
• de Bary, Wm. Theodore, Wing-tsit Chan, and Buton Watson. Sources of Chinese Tradition. New York and London: Columbia University Press, 1960, ISBN 978-0-231-02255-2
• Holm, Jean, and John Bowker. Sacred Writings. London: Printer Publishers Ltd., 1994
• Lin Yutang. The Wisdom of Confucius. New York: Random House, Inc., 1938
• Nylan, Michael (2001), The five "Confucian" classics, Yale University Press, ISBN 978-0-300-08185-5.
• Puett, Michael. "Centering the Realm: Wang Mang, the Zhouli, and Early Chinese Statecraft." in Elman, Benjamin A. and Kern, Martin, eds., Statecraft and Classical Learning: the Rituals of Zhou in East Asian History, pp.129-154.
• Riegel, Jeffrey K. (1993), "Li chi 禮記", in Loewe, Michael (ed.), Early Chinese Texts: A Bibliographical Guide, Society for the Study of Early China, pp. 293–297, ISBN 978-1-55729-043-4.
• Smith, Howard. Confucius. Great Britain: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1973

Chinese Wikisource has original text related to this article:

禮記

• The Book of Rites (Chinese and English, James Legge's 1885 translation) - Chinese Text Project
• Confucian Documents (English)
• Liji 禮記 The Book of Rites, Ulrich Theobald, Chinese Literature, 24 July 2010.