Tertiary education

Tertiary education, also referred to as third-level, third-stage or post-secondary education, is the educational level following the completion of secondary education. The World Bank, for example, defines tertiary education as including universities as well as trade schools and colleges.[1] Higher education is taken to include undergraduate and postgraduate education, while vocational education beyond secondary education is known as further education in the United Kingdom, or included under the category of continuing education in the United States.

Students attend a lecture at a tertiary institution: Helsinki University of Technology

Tertiary education generally culminates in the receipt of certificates, diplomas, or academic degrees.

UNESCO stated that tertiary education focuses on learning endeavors in specialized fields. It includes academic and higher vocational education.[2]

The World Bank's 2019 World Development Report on the future of work[3] argues that given the future of work and the increasing role of technology in value chains, tertiary education becomes even more relevant for workers to compete in the labor market.

Global progress
Percentage of 25-29-year-olds who have completed at least four years of tertiary education, by wealth, selected countries, 2008-2014

Tertiary education systems will keep expanding over the next 10 years. Globally, the gross enrollment ratio in tertiary education increased from 19% in 2000 to 38% in 2017, with the female enrollment ratio exceeding the male ratio by 4 percentage points.[4]

The tertiary gross enrollment ratio ranges from 9% in low-income countries to 77% in high-income countries, where, after rapid growth in the 2000s, reached a plateau in the 2010s.[4]

Between now and 2030, the biggest increase in tertiary enrollment ratios is expected in middle-income countries, where it will reach 52%. Sustainable Development Goal 4 (SDG 4) commits countries to providing lifelong learning opportunities for all, including tertiary education.[4]

This commitment is monitored through the global indicator for target 4.3 in the sustainable development goal 4 (SDG 4), which measures the participation rate of youth and adults in formal and non-formal education and training in the previous 12 months, whether for work or non-work purposes.[4]

Criticism

In 1994 the UNESCO Salamanca Statement called on the international community to endorse the approach of inclusive education, including at the tertiary level. Since this time the world has witnessed the global massification of tertiary education, yet this explosion of facilities and enrollment has largely entrenched and exacerbated the exclusion of people with disabilities. This is particularly the case in low- and middle-income contexts, where university completion rates for students with disabilities are much lower compared to completion rates of students without disabilities. [5]

Some tertiary schools have been criticized as having permitted or actively encouraged grade inflation.[6][7] In addition, certain scholars contend that the supply of graduates in some fields of study is exceeding the demand for their skills, aggravating graduate unemployment, underemployment and credentialism.[8][9]

Influence on views

Graduates of tertiary education are likely to have different worldviews and moral values than non-graduates. Research indicates that graduates are more likely to have libertarian principles with less adherence to social hierarchies. Graduates are also more likely to embrace cultural and ethnic diversity and express more positive views towards minority groups. For international relationships, graduates are more likely to favor openness, supporting policies like free trade, open borders, the European Union, and more liberal policies regarding international migration.[10]

Tertiary Education statistics

The total expenditure on tertiary education (ISCED levels 5 to 8) as a percentage of GDP for individual countries is shown in the following table.

CountryTertiary Education expenditure as % of GDP 2020[11]
 Australia1.9
 Austria1.8
 Belgium1.6
 Bulgaria1.2
 Canada2.4
 Chile2.7
 Colombia1.5
 Costa Rica1.6
 Croatia1.2
 Czech Republic1.1
 Denmark1.9
 Estonia1.5
 Finland1.6
 France1.6
 Germany1.3
 Greece0.9
 Hungary0.9
 Iceland1.4
 Ireland0.8
 Israel1.4
 Italy1.0
 Japan1.4
 Latvia1.4
 Lithuania1.2
 Luxembourg0.5
 Mexico1.2
 Netherlands1.8
 New Zealand1.6
 Norway2.0
 Poland1.3
 Portugal1.3
 Romania0.8
 Slovakia1.1
 Slovenia1.2
 South Korea1.5
 Spain1.5
 Sweden1.6
 Turkey1.5
 United Kingdom1.5
 United States of America2.5

The percentage of adults who have attained individual tertiary education levels by country is shown in the following table.

Country Ages 25–64: % attaining a tertiary degree course equivalent to at least:[12]
Any tertiary Bachelor's Master's Doctoral
 Argentina24.81.4
 Australia51.539.410.91.9
 Austria35.620.414.81.2
 Belgium45.845.020.11.1
 Brazil21.021.01.00.3
 Bulgaria29.829.820.40.3
 Canada62.7
 Chile31.4
 China18.5
 Colombia28.3
 Costa Rica25.3
 Czech Republic26.726.519.70.7
 Denmark42.137.016.31.5
 Estonia42.136.521.80.8
 Finland42.635.117.31.3
 France41.627.215.21.0
 Germany32.531.913.61.9
 Greece35.134.79.30.9
 Hungary29.428.513.90.5
 India12.912.93.43.4
 Indonesia13.110.30.80.0
 Iceland43.639.418.11.2
 Ireland54.444.316.61.7
 Israel50.639.615.21.2
 Italy20.320.214.60.6
 Japan56.1
 Latvia39.535.118.40.4
 Lithuania46.546.516.50.8
 Luxembourg51.546.631.42.9
 Mexico20.620.11.90.1
 Netherlands44.742.418.21.2
 New Zealand39.835.86.31.1
 Norway48.136.515.41.5
 Poland33.933.826.20.8
 Portugal31.531.221.70.9
 Romania19.7
 Slovakia29.229.125.30.9
 Slovenia40.131.720.13.7
 South Korea52.8
 South Africa13.9
 Spain41.128.517.20.8
 Sweden48.538.718.72.0
 Switzerland44.744.720.03.2
 Turkey25.018.32.30.4
 United Kingdom51.342.315.81.7
 United States of America50.039.414.42.1

In the United Kingdom

Under devolution in the United Kingdom, education is administered separately in England, Wales, Northern Ireland, and Scotland. In England, the term "tertiary education" aligns with the global term "higher education" (i.e. post-18 study).[13] In 2018 the Welsh Government adopted the term "tertiary education" to refer to post-16 education and training in Wales.[14] Since the 1970s, however, specialized further education colleges in England and Wales have called themselves "tertiary colleges" although being part of the secondary education process. These institutions cater for both school leavers and adults, thus combining the main functions of an FE college and a sixth form college.[15] Generally, district councils with such colleges have adopted a tertiary system or structure where a single local institution provides all the 16–19 and adult education, and where schools do not universally offer sixth forms (i.e. schools only serve ages 11–16). However the Further and Higher Education Act 1992 has effectively prevented the creation of new tertiary colleges.[16]

In Australia
Deakin University, one of Australia's 43 universities
Main article: Tertiary education in Australia

Within Australia "tertiary education" refers to continuing studies after a student completes secondary school. Tertiary education options include universities, technical and further education (TAFE) or private universities.[17]

In the United States of America
The University of Pennsylvania, an American research university

The higher education system in the United States is decentralized and regulated independently by each state[18] with accreditors playing a key role in ensuring institutions meet minimum standards. It is large and diverse with institutions that are privately governed and institutions that are owned and operated by state and local governments. Some private institutions are affiliated with religious organizations whereas others are secular with enrollment ranging from a few dozen to tens of thousands of students. In short, there are a wide variety of options which are often locally determined. The United States Department of Education presents a broad-spectrum view of tertiary education and detailed information on the nation's educational structure, accreditation procedures, and connections to state as well as federal agencies and entities.[19]

The Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education provides one framework for classifying U.S. colleges and universities in several different ways.[20] US tertiary education also includes various non-profit organizations promoting professional development of individuals in the field of higher education and helping expand awareness of related issues like international student services and complete campus internationalization.[21][22]

In the European Union

Although tertiary education in the EU includes university, it can differ from country to country.

In France

After going to nursery school (French: école maternelle), elementary school (French: école élémentaire), middle school (French: collège), and high school (French: lycée), a student may go to university, but may also stop at that point.

In Africa

In Nigeria
Federal Polytechnic, Nekede in Owerri, Nigeria.

Tertiary education refers to post-secondary education received at universities (government or privately funded), monotechnics, polytechnics and colleges of education. After completing a secondary education, students may enroll in a tertiary institution or acquire a vocational education. Students are required to sit for the Joint Admissions and Matriculation Board Entrance Examination (JAMB) as well as the Secondary School Certificate Examination (SSCE) or General Certificate Examination (GCE) and meet varying cut-off marks to gain admission into a tertiary institution.[23]

In Japan

4th and 5th grades of colleges of technology and special training colleges fall into the category.

Colleges of technology are provided by the 1st article of the educational law in Japan as well as universities and junior colleges, which are very often called as high education for two years, but special training colleges are provided by the 124th article of the law as a category of special training schools. Both are regular educational organisations but special training colleges are not "schools" under the law. They are additionally not in high education.

Pupil who finish a junior high school can enter a college of technology but 1st, 2nd and 3rd grades are in secondary education and out of this article. College of technology is special educational system which secondary and tertiary educations intermingle. Graduates from the school are equivalent to graduates from a junior college.

Whilst special training colleges are not "schools" by the law, they are schools in public view. Their most courses are for two years but some have one, three or four-year courses. Graduates from courses for more than two years are equivalent to graduates from junior colleges and graduates from a course for four years can enter a graduate course of a university in recent years.

History of the special training schools

Special training schools were included in miscellaneous schools by the current educational law when it was enforced in 1947. The 83rd article of the law provided for them and they were certainly miscellaneous.

Because miscellaneous schools included educational organisations with lessons for a few times in a week then, some educational organisations including later special training schools were dissatisfied about the system. In addition, there were many problems because of being miscellaneous.

Some educational organisations authorised by some definite condition became miscellaneous schools with reform of the law on 1 January 1957 but were still in the miscellaneous system. The law has not applied to many other educational organisations since the reform.

There were various styles whilst the law authorised: for example, schools to provide about educational backgrounds and those without any provisions about them. There are still many problems and special training schools were created in January 1976. They include three courses: post-secondary, upper-secondary, and general courses. Schools with the post-secondary course for graduates who finish senior high schools and people with equivalent educational backgrounds are called as special training colleges. The upper-secondary course is that for graduates from junior high schools and everyone can enter the general course. The latter is near current miscellaneous schools.

Graduates from special training colleges since 1994 can get diploma. The law does not provide about diploma unlike foundation degree that graduates from colleges of technology can get but is public degree as well.

In Hong Kong
Chinese University of Hong Kong, one of Hong Kong's universities
Main article: Higher education in Hong Kong

In Hong Kong "tertiary education" or "higher education" refers to any education higher than secondary education. Tertiary education includes universities, post secondary colleges, statutory universities, and publicly funded institutions.

See also

References
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  2. "Tertiary education (ISCED levels 5 to 8)". uis.unesco.org. Archived from the original on 8 February 2020. Retrieved 2 July 2018.
  3. "World Bank World Development Report 2019: The Changing Nature of Work" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 6 September 2019. Retrieved 12 October 2018.
  4. #CommitToEducation. UNESCO. 2019. ISBN 978-92-3-100336-3. Archived from the original on 11 February 2020. Retrieved 7 February 2020.
  5. Thompson, Stephen (2020), "Developing disability-inclusive higher education systems" (PDF), International Higher Education, no. 100, archived (PDF) from the original on 13 June 2022, retrieved 22 April 2022
  6. Gunn, Andrew; Kapade, Priya (25 May 2018), The university grade inflation debate is going global, University World News, archived from the original on 26 May 2018, retrieved 23 June 2019, The grading process has been compromised as universities are incentivised to meet the demands of their customers and graduate more students with top grades to boost their institutional ranking.
  7. Baker, Simon (28 June 2018). "Is grade inflation a worldwide trend?". The World University Rankings. Times Higher Education. Archived from the original on 25 October 2019. Retrieved 23 June 2019. Departments where enrollments were falling felt under pressure to relax their grading practices to make their courses more attractive, leading to an "arms race" in grade inflation.
  8. Coates, Ken; Morrison, Bill (2016), Dream Factories: Why Universities Won't Solve the Youth Jobs Crisis, Toronto: Dundurn Books, p. 232, ISBN 9781459733770, archived from the original on 1 June 2016, retrieved 18 July 2020
  9. Brown, Phillip; Lauder, Hugh; Ashton, David (2012), "The Global Auction: The Broken Promises of Education, Jobs, and Incomes", International Review of Education, Oxford University Press, 57 (5–6): 208, Bibcode:2011IREdu..57..785A, doi:10.1007/s11159-011-9242-8, ISBN 9780199926442, S2CID 153328528
  10. Ford, Robert; Jennings, Will (2020). "The Changing Cleavage Politics of Western Europe". Annual Review of Political Science. 23: 295–314. doi:10.1146/annurev-polisci-052217-104957.
  11. OECD.stat Educational Finance Indicators Indicator C2: Total expenditure on educational institutions as a percentage of GDP, 2020
  12. OECD.stat Educational attainment and labour-force status, Educational attainment of 2-64 year-olds, 2022
  13. "Independent panel report to the Review of Post-18 Education and Funding" (PDF). May 2019. Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 December 2020. Retrieved 3 March 2022.
  14. "Welsh Government | Written Statement - Public Good and a Prosperous Wales – Next steps". gov.wales. Archived from the original on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 7 June 2018.
  15. "Public Expenditure on Education and Skills: Second Report of Session 2005–06" (PDF). House of Commons Education and Skills Committee. 2006. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 December 2021. Retrieved 22 April 2022.
  16. "White Paper: Education and Training for the 21st century (1991)". Archived from the original on 2 October 2021. Retrieved 2 October 2021.
  17. "Education and Work, Australia, May 2022 | Australian Bureau of Statistics". www.abs.gov.au. 11 October 2022. Archived from the original on 31 March 2023. Retrieved 23 May 2023.
  18. "For Profit Postsecondary Schools: Oversight and Governing Statutes & Regulations" (PDF). caichildlaw.org. 2014. Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 May 2022. Retrieved 22 April 2022.
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  •  This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO. Text taken from #CommitToEducation​, 35, UNESCO, UNESCO. UNESCO.
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