Transverse isotropy

In linear elasticity, the stress and strain are related by Hooke's law, i.e.,

${\displaystyle {\underline {\underline {\boldsymbol {\sigma }}}}={\underline {\underline {\mathsf {C}}}}~{\underline {\underline {\boldsymbol {\varepsilon }}}}}$

or, using Voigt notation,

${\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}\sigma _{1}\\\sigma _{2}\\\sigma _{3}\\\sigma _{4}\\\sigma _{5}\\\sigma _{6}\end{bmatrix}}={\begin{bmatrix}C_{11}&C_{12}&C_{13}&C_{14}&C_{15}&C_{16}\\C_{12}&C_{22}&C_{23}&C_{24}&C_{25}&C_{26}\\C_{13}&C_{23}&C_{33}&C_{34}&C_{35}&C_{36}\\C_{14}&C_{24}&C_{34}&C_{44}&C_{45}&C_{46}\\C_{15}&C_{25}&C_{35}&C_{45}&C_{55}&C_{56}\\C_{16}&C_{26}&C_{36}&C_{46}&C_{56}&C_{66}\end{bmatrix}}{\begin{bmatrix}\varepsilon _{1}\\\varepsilon _{2}\\\varepsilon _{3}\\\varepsilon _{4}\\\varepsilon _{5}\\\varepsilon _{6}\end{bmatrix}}}$

The condition for material symmetry in linear elastic materials is.[2]

${\displaystyle {\underline {\underline {\mathsf {C}}}}={\underline {\underline {{\mathsf {A}}_{\varepsilon }}}}^{T}~{\underline {\underline {\mathsf {C}}}}~{\underline {\underline {{\mathsf {A}}_{\varepsilon }}}}}$

where

${\displaystyle {\underline {\underline {{\mathsf {A}}_{\varepsilon }}}}={\begin{bmatrix}A_{11}^{2}&A_{12}^{2}&A_{13}^{2}&A_{12}A_{13}&A_{11}A_{13}&A_{11}A_{12}\\A_{21}^{2}&A_{22}^{2}&A_{23}^{2}&A_{22}A_{23}&A_{21}A_{23}&A_{21}A_{22}\\A_{31}^{2}&A_{32}^{2}&A_{33}^{2}&A_{32}A_{33}&A_{31}A_{33}&A_{31}A_{32}\\2A_{21}A_{31}&2A_{22}A_{32}&2A_{23}A_{33}&A_{22}A_{33}+A_{23}A_{32}&A_{21}A_{33}+A_{23}A_{31}&A_{21}A_{32}+A_{22}A_{31}\\2A_{11}A_{31}&2A_{12}A_{32}&2A_{13}A_{33}&A_{12}A_{33}+A_{13}A_{32}&A_{11}A_{33}+A_{13}A_{31}&A_{11}A_{32}+A_{12}A_{31}\\2A_{11}A_{21}&2A_{12}A_{22}&2A_{13}A_{23}&A_{12}A_{23}+A_{13}A_{22}&A_{11}A_{23}+A_{13}A_{21}&A_{11}A_{22}+A_{12}A_{21}\end{bmatrix}}}$

Using the specific values of ${\displaystyle \theta }$ in matrix ${\displaystyle {\underline {\underline {\boldsymbol {A}}}}}$,[3] it can be shown that the fourth-rank elasticity stiffness tensor may be written in 2-index Voigt notation as the matrix

${\displaystyle {\underline {\underline {\mathsf {C}}}}={\begin{bmatrix}C_{11}&C_{12}&C_{13}&0&0&0\\C_{12}&C_{11}&C_{13}&0&0&0\\C_{13}&C_{13}&C_{33}&0&0&0\\0&0&0&C_{44}&0&0\\0&0&0&0&C_{44}&0\\0&0&0&0&0&(C_{11}-C_{12})/2\end{bmatrix}}={\begin{bmatrix}C_{11}&C_{11}-2C_{66}&C_{13}&0&0&0\\C_{11}-2C_{66}&C_{11}&C_{13}&0&0&0\\C_{13}&C_{13}&C_{33}&0&0&0\\0&0&0&C_{44}&0&0\\0&0&0&0&C_{44}&0\\0&0&0&0&0&C_{66}\end{bmatrix}}.}$

The elasticity stiffness matrix ${\displaystyle C_{ij}}$ has 5 independent constants, which are related to well known engineering elastic moduli in the following way. These engineering moduli are experimentally determined.

The compliance matrix (inverse of the elastic stiffness matrix) is

${\displaystyle {\underline {\underline {\mathsf {C}}}}^{-1}={\frac {1}{\Delta }}{\begin{bmatrix}C_{11}C_{33}-C_{13}^{2}&C_{13}^{2}-C_{12}C_{33}&(C_{12}-C_{11})C_{13}&0&0&0\\C_{13}^{2}-C_{12}C_{33}&C_{11}C_{33}-C_{13}^{2}&(C_{12}-C_{11})C_{13}&0&0&0\\(C_{12}-C_{11})C_{13}&(C_{12}-C_{11})C_{13}&C_{11}^{2}-C_{12}^{2}&0&0&0\\0&0&0&{\frac {\Delta }{C_{44}}}&0&0\\0&0&0&0&{\frac {\Delta }{C_{44}}}&0\\0&0&0&0&0&{\frac {2\Delta }{(C_{11}-C_{12})}}\end{bmatrix}}}$

where ${\displaystyle \Delta$ :=(C_{11}-C_{12})[(C_{11}+C_{12})C_{33}-2C_{13}C_{13}]} . In engineering notation,

${\displaystyle {\underline {\underline {\mathsf {C}}}}^{-1}={\begin{bmatrix}{\tfrac {1}{E_{\rm {x}}}}&-{\tfrac {\nu _{\rm {yx}}}{E_{\rm {x}}}}&-{\tfrac {\nu _{\rm {zx}}}{E_{\rm {z}}}}&0&0&0\\-{\tfrac {\nu _{\rm {xy}}}{E_{\rm {x}}}}&{\tfrac {1}{E_{\rm {x}}}}&-{\tfrac {\nu _{\rm {zx}}}{E_{\rm {z}}}}&0&0&0\\-{\tfrac {\nu _{\rm {xz}}}{E_{\rm {x}}}}&-{\tfrac {\nu _{\rm {xz}}}{E_{\rm {x}}}}&{\tfrac {1}{E_{\rm {z}}}}&0&0&0\\0&0&0&{\tfrac {1}{G_{\rm {xz}}}}&0&0\\0&0&0&0&{\tfrac {1}{G_{\rm {xz}}}}&0\\0&0&0&0&0&{\tfrac {2(1+\nu _{\rm {xy}})}{E_{\rm {x}}}}\end{bmatrix}}}$

Comparing these two forms of the compliance matrix shows us that the longitudinal Young's modulus is given by

${\displaystyle E_{L}=E_{\rm {z}}=C_{33}-2C_{13}C_{13}/(C_{11}+C_{12})}$

Similarly, the transverse Young's modulus is

${\displaystyle E_{T}=E_{\rm {x}}=E_{\rm {y}}=(C_{11}-C_{12})(C_{11}C_{33}+C_{12}C_{33}-2C_{13}C_{13})/(C_{11}C_{33}-C_{13}C_{13})}$

The inplane shear modulus is

${\displaystyle G_{xy}=(C_{11}-C_{12})/2=C_{66}}$

and the Poisson's ratio for loading along the polar axis is

${\displaystyle \nu _{LT}=\nu _{zx}=C_{13}/(C_{11}+C_{12})}$.

Here, L represents the longitudinal (polar) direction and T represents the transverse direction.

A layered model of homogeneous and isotropic material, can be up-scaled to a transverse isotropic medium, proposed by Backus.[4]

Backus presented an equivalent medium theory, a heterogeneous medium can be replaced by a homogeneous one that predicts wave propagation in the actual medium.[5] Backus showed that layering on a scale much finer than the wavelength has an impact and that a number of isotropic layers can be replaced by a homogeneous transversely isotropic medium that behaves exactly in the same manner as the actual medium under static load in the infinite wavelength limit.

If each layer ${\displaystyle i}$ is described by 5 transversely isotropic parameters ${\displaystyle (a_{i},b_{i},c_{i},d_{i},e_{i})}$, specifying the matrix

${\displaystyle {\underline {\underline {{\mathsf {C}}_{i}}}}={\begin{bmatrix}a_{i}&a_{i}-2e_{i}&b_{i}&0&0&0\\a_{i}-2e_{i}&a_{i}&b_{i}&0&0&0\\b_{i}&b_{i}&c_{i}&0&0&0\\0&0&0&d_{i}&0&0\\0&0&0&0&d_{i}&0\\0&0&0&0&0&e_{i}\\\end{bmatrix}}}$

The elastic moduli for the effective medium will be

${\displaystyle {\underline {\underline {{\mathsf {C}}_{\mathrm {eff} }}}}={\begin{bmatrix}A&A-2E&B&0&0&0\\A-2E&A&B&0&0&0\\B&B&C&0&0&0\\0&0&0&D&0&0\\0&0&0&0&D&0\\0&0&0&0&0&E\end{bmatrix}}}$

where

${\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}A&=\langle a-b^{2}c^{-1}\rangle +\langle c^{-1}\rangle ^{-1}\langle bc^{-1}\rangle ^{2}\\B&=\langle c^{-1}\rangle ^{-1}\langle bc^{-1}\rangle \\C&=\langle c^{-1}\rangle ^{-1}\\D&=\langle d^{-1}\rangle ^{-1}\\E&=\langle e\rangle \\\end{aligned}}}$

${\displaystyle \langle \cdot \rangle }$ denotes the volume weighted average over all layers.

This includes isotropic layers, as the layer is isotropic if ${\displaystyle b_{i}=a_{i}-2e_{i}}$, ${\displaystyle a_{i}=c_{i}}$ and ${\displaystyle d_{i}=e_{i}}$.

Solutions to wave propagation problems in linear elastic transversely isotropic media can be constructed by superposing solutions for the quasi-P wave, the quasi S-wave, and a S-wave polarized orthogonal to the quasi S-wave. However, the equations for the angular variation of velocity are algebraically complex and the plane-wave velocities are functions of the propagation angle ${\displaystyle \theta }$ are.[6] The direction dependent wave speeds for elastic waves through the material can be found by using the Christoffel equation and are given by[7]

${\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}V_{qP}(\theta )&={\sqrt {\frac {C_{11}\sin ^{2}(\theta )+C_{33}\cos ^{2}(\theta )+C_{44}+{\sqrt {M(\theta )}}}{2\rho }}}\\V_{qS}(\theta )&={\sqrt {\frac {C_{11}\sin ^{2}(\theta )+C_{33}\cos ^{2}(\theta )+C_{44}-{\sqrt {M(\theta )}}}{2\rho }}}\\V_{S}&={\sqrt {\frac {C_{66}\sin ^{2}(\theta )+C_{44}\cos ^{2}(\theta )}{\rho }}}\\M(\theta )&=\left[\left(C_{11}-C_{44}\right)\sin ^{2}(\theta )-\left(C_{33}-C_{44}\right)\cos ^{2}(\theta )\right]^{2}+\left(C_{13}+C_{44}\right)^{2}\sin ^{2}(2\theta )\\\end{aligned}}}$

where ${\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\theta \end{aligned}}}$ is the angle between the axis of symmetry and the wave propagation direction, ${\displaystyle \rho }$ is mass density and the ${\displaystyle C_{ij}}$ are elements of the elastic stiffness matrix. The Thomsen parameters are used to simplify these expressions and make them easier to understand.

Thomsen parameters[8] are dimensionless combinations of elastic moduli that characterize transversely isotropic materials, which are encountered, for example, in geophysics. In terms of the components of the elastic stiffness matrix, these parameters are defined as:

${\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\epsilon &={\frac {C_{11}-C_{33}}{2C_{33}}}\\\delta &={\frac {(C_{13}+C_{44})^{2}-(C_{33}-C_{44})^{2}}{2C_{33}(C_{33}-C_{44})}}\\\gamma &={\frac {C_{66}-C_{44}}{2C_{44}}}\end{aligned}}}$

where index 3 indicates the axis of symmetry (${\displaystyle \mathbf {e} _{3}}$) . These parameters, in conjunction with the associated P wave and S wave velocities, can be used to characterize wave propagation through weakly anisotropic, layered media. Empirically, the Thomsen parameters for most layered rock formations are much lower than 1.

The name refers to Leon Thomsen, professor of geophysics at the University of Houston, who proposed these parameters in his 1986 paper "Weak Elastic Anisotropy".

In geophysics the anisotropy in elastic properties is usually weak, in which case ${\displaystyle \delta ,\gamma ,\epsilon \ll 1}$. When the exact expressions for the wave velocities above are linearized in these small quantities, they simplify to

${\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}V_{qP}(\theta )&\approx V_{P0}(1+\delta \sin ^{2}\theta \cos ^{2}\theta +\epsilon \sin ^{4}\theta )\\V_{qS}(\theta )&\approx V_{S0}\left[1+\left({\frac {V_{P0}}{V_{S0}}}\right)^{2}(\epsilon -\delta )\sin ^{2}\theta \cos ^{2}\theta \right]\\V_{S}(\theta )&\approx V_{S0}(1+\gamma \sin ^{2}\theta )\end{aligned}}}$

where

${\displaystyle V_{P0}={\sqrt {C_{33}/\rho }}~;~~V_{S0}={\sqrt {C_{44}/\rho }}}$

are the P and S wave velocities in the direction of the axis of symmetry (${\displaystyle \mathbf {e} _{3}}$) (in geophysics, this is usually, but not always, the vertical direction). Note that ${\displaystyle \delta }$ may be further linearized, but this does not lead to further simplification.

The approximate expressions for the wave velocities are simple enough to be physically interpreted, and sufficiently accurate for most geophysical applications. These expressions are also useful in some contexts where the anisotropy is not weak.