Virucide

A virucide (alternatively spelled viricide[1] or named biocidal agent[2] or known as microbicides[3] or biocides[4]) is any physical or chemical agent that deactivates or destroys viruses.[5] The substances are not only virucidal but can be also bactericidal, fungicidal, sporicidal or tuberculocidal.[6]

Virucides are to be used outside the human body, and as such fall into the category of disinfectants (applied not to the human body) and antiseptics (applied to the surface of skin) for those safe enough. Overall, the notion of virucide differs from an antiviral drug such as Aciclovir, which inhibits the proliferation of the virus inside the body.[7][8][9]

CDC's Disinfection and Sterilization list of Chemical Disinfectants mentions and discusses substances such as: Alcohol, Chlorine and chlorine compounds, Formaldehyde, Glutaraldehyde, Hydrogen peroxide, Iodophors, Ortho-phthalaldehyde (OPA), Peracetic acid, Peracetic acid and hydrogen peroxide, Phenolics, Quaternary ammonium compounds, with different, but usually potent microbicidal activity.[10][11] Other inactivating agents such as UV, Metals, Ozone, etc. exist.[12][13][14][11]

Definitions

According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), a virucide is "An agent that kills viruses to make them noninfective."[15]

According to a definition by Robert Koch Institute Germany and further institutions,[16] virucide means effective against enveloped and non-enveloped viruses.[17][18][12]

Due to the complexity of the subject, in Germany, Robert-Koch-Institute introduced sub-definitions such as "limited virucidal" or "limited virucidal plus" (translated from German) to differentiate its meaning further.[19][20]

Note that the meaning of Virus inactivation or Viral clearance is specific for the medical process industry, i. e. to remove HIV from blood.

Functioning

Different substances have interactions between microbicides and viruses such as:[3]

  • Alteration of the viral envelope
  • Structural alteration
  • Alteration of viral markers or
  • Alteration of the viral genome

The exact mechanisms, for example of Iodine (PVP-I) are still not clear, but it is targeting the bacterial protein synthesis due to disruption of electron transport, DNA denaturation or disruptive effects on the virus membrane.[21]

Registration

The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention administers a regulatory framework for disinfectants and sterilants.[22] To earn virucidal registration, extensive data on harder-to-kill viruses demonstrating long-lasting virucidal efficacy need to be provided.[23][24][25]

Regulations
  • Europe: Biocide products regulation EN 528/2012[26]

Testing
  • EN 14476:2019 (suspensions test)[27][28]
  • EN 16777:2018 (surfaces test)[29][28]
  • EN 1500 (hand rub test)[30][31]
  • ISO 18184:2019 (textile products)[32]
  • ISO 21702:2019 (plastics and non-porous surfaces) [33]

A specific protocol for hand-hygiene testing has been researched and established by microbiologist Prof. Graham Ayliffe.[34]

Safety

Virucides are not intended for use inside the body,[35][36] and most are disinfectants that are not intended for use on the surface of the body.[37] Most substances are toxic.[6] None of the listed substances replaces vaccination[38][39][40] or antiviral drugs, if available.[41][42][43] Virucides are usually labeled with instructions for safe, effective use.[44][37][45][46] The correct use and scope of disinfectants is very important.[47][48][49]

Potential serious side-effects with using "quats" (Quaternary ammonium compounds) exist, and over-use "can have a negative impact on your customers' septic systems."[50]

Mouth-rinsing or gargling can reduce virus load,[51] however experts warn that "Viruses in the nose, lungs or trachea that are released when speaking, sneezing and coughing are unlikely to be reached because the effect is based on physical accessibility of the surface mucous membrane".[52]

According to Deutsche Dermatologische Gesellschaft, medical practitioners recommend that disinfectants are gentler on the skin compared to soap-washing. The disinfected hands should then also be creamed to support the regeneration of the skin barrier. Skin care does not reduce the antiseptic effect of the alcoholic disinfectants.[53][54]

The "explosive" use of antibacterial cleansers has led the CDC to monitor substances in adults.[55]

On April 5, 2021, a Press Briefing by White House COVID-19 Response Team and Public Health Officials mentions that "Cleaning with household cleaners containing soap or detergent will physically remove germs from surfaces.  This process does not necessarily kill germs, but reduces the risk of infection by removing them. Disinfecting uses a chemical product, which is a process that kills the germs on the surfaces. In most situations, regular cleaning of surfaces with soap and detergent, not necessarily disinfecting those surfaces, is enough to reduce the risk of COVID-19 spread. Disinfection is only recommended in indoor settings — schools and homes — where there has been a suspected or confirmed case of COVID-19 within the last 24 hours. In most situations, regular cleaning of surfaces with soap and detergent, not necessarily disinfecting those surfaces, is enough to reduce the risk of COVID-19 spread."[56][57]

The CDC issued a special report "Knowledge and Practices Regarding Safe Household Cleaning and Disinfection for COVID-19 Prevention" due to the increased number of calls to poison centers regarding exposures to cleaners and disinfectants since the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, concluding that "Public messaging should continue to emphasize evidence-based, safe cleaning and disinfection practices to prevent SARS-CoV-2 transmission in households, including hand hygiene and cleaning and disinfection of high-touch surfaces."[58][59]

CDC provides a Guideline for Disinfection and Sterilization in Healthcare Facilities.[60]

Microbicidal activity

Each mentioned item in the list has different microbicidal activity, i. e. some viruses can be more or less resistant. For example, Poliovirus is resistant to H2O2, even after a contact time of 10 minutes[61] however 7.5% H2O2 takes 30 minutes to inactivate 99.9% of Poliovirus.[10] Generally, hydrogen peroxide is considered as potent virucide in appropriate concentrations, specifically in other forms such as gaseous.[3]

Another example is Povidone-iodine (PVP-I), which is found to be effective against herpes simplex virus[62] or SARS-CoV-2,[63] and other viruses,[64] but coxsackievirus and polio was rather resistant or less sensitive to inactivation.[65][64]

SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19)

In the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, former US President Donald Trump delivered a very dangerous message to the public on the use of disinfectants, which was immediately rejected and refuted by health professionals.[66] In essence, and as mentioned above, virucides are usually toxic depending on concentrations, mixture, etc., and can be deadly not just to viruses, but also if inside a human or animal body[67] or on surface of body.[68]

With regards to the COVID-19 pandemic, some of the mentioned agents are still under research about their microbicidal activity and effectivity against SARS-CoV-2 e. g. on surfaces,[69][70] as mouth-washes,[71] hand-washing,[72] etc.

A mixture of 62–71% ethanol, 0.5% hydrogen peroxide or 0.1% sodium hypochlorite is found to be able to deactivate the novel Coronavirus on surfaces within 1 minute.[2]

A 2020 systematic review on hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) mouth-washes concludes, that they don't have an effect on virucidal activity, recommending that "dental care protocols during the COVID-19 pandemic should be revised."[73] Additional research with relation to the Coronavirus virucidal efficacy is on-going.[74][71][75]

Various information and overview of light-based strategies (UV-C and other types of light sources; see also Ultraviolet germicidal irradiation) to combat the COVID-19 pandemic are available.[76][77][78][79]

As systematic review of 16 studies by Cochrane on Antimicrobial mouthwashes (gargling) and nasal sprays concludes that "there is currently no evidence relating to the benefits and risks of patients with COVID‐19 using antimicrobial mouthwashes or nasal sprays."[80]

SARS-CoV

Treatment of SARS-CoV for 2 min with Isodine (PVP-I) is found to strongly reduce the virus infectivity.[81]

Research

The International Society of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy (ISAC) is one of the major umbrella organizations for education, research and development in the area of therapy of infections. Its members are national organizations, currently 86 and over 50,000 individual members.[82]

List of virucides

Note that many of the substances, if sold commercially, are usually combinations and mixtures with varying molecular contents. Also note that most products have a limited viricide efficacy.[83] A specific test-protocol is applied.[84] The lists' scope is limited. For further products refer to other lists.[85][86][6] Other factors such as stability of the concentrate, application concentration, exposure time, timing of the solution, hydrogen ion concentration (pH value), temperature, etc. play an certain role for the effectivity of a virucide.[11]

EPA is providing a public listing called "List N"[87][88]

General substance listing of active component or compound

Example products
  • Betadine products and medical variants by Avrio Health (part of Purdue Pharma)[115]
    • Ingredients: Povidon-iodine etc.
    • As of June 2021, not recommended by manufacturer to "kill" coronaviruses.[116]
  • Bleach products:
  • Henkel products:
  • Heitmann Hygiene & Care products:
  • Listerine
    • Ingredients: Alcohol, sodium fluoride, essential oils[124] (specifically in case of management of inflammatory periodontal diseases)[125]
    • Unknown or limited virucidal activity[118]
  • Lysol
  • Sterillium
    • Ingredients: 1-Propanol, 2-Propanol and Mecetronium ethylsulfate
    • By former Bode Chemie, now Hartmann AG, one of Germany's major health-care brands available in 50 countries,[126] and according to website "the world's most scientifically researched hand disinfectant with approximately 60 scientific publications in trade journals in 2015."[127][104]

Other substances, drugs, proteins, therapeutics, research-level topics

Agricultural, veterinary

See also

References
  1. "Medical Definition of VIRUCIDE". www.merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 2021-04-10.
  2. Kampf G, Todt D, Pfaender S, Steinmann E (March 2020). "Persistence of coronaviruses on inanimate surfaces and their inactivation with biocidal agents". The Journal of Hospital Infection. 104 (3): 246–251. doi:10.1016/j.jhin.2020.01.022. PMC 7132493. PMID 32035997.
  3. Maillard JY, Sattar SA, Pinto F (2013), "Virucidal Activity of Microbicides", Russell, Hugo & Ayliffe's, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, pp. 178–207, doi:10.1002/9781118425831.ch9, ISBN 978-1-118-42583-1
  4. "Information on biocides". European Chemicals Agency (ECHA). European Union. Retrieved 2021-05-26.
  5. "The definition of viricide". Reference.com. Retrieved 1 March 2017.
  6. "Comparing Different Disinfectants". Stanford Environmental Health & Safety. Retrieved 2021-06-03.
  7. "Antiviral drug". TheFreeDictionary.com. Retrieved 2021-04-14.
  8. Dolgin E (April 2021). "The race for antiviral drugs to beat COVID - and the next pandemic". Nature. 592 (7854): 340–343. Bibcode:2021Natur.592..340D. doi:10.1038/d41586-021-00958-4. PMID 33854246. S2CID 233243982.
  9. Kräusslich HG, Müller B (2008). "Antiviral Drugs". In Offermanns S, Rosenthal W (eds.). Encyclopedia of Molecular Pharmacology. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg. pp. 196–201. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-38918-7_20. ISBN 978-3-540-38916-3.
  10. "Chemical Disinfectants | Disinfection & Sterilization Guidelines | Guidelines Library | Infection Control | CDC". www.cdc.gov. 2019-04-04. Retrieved 2021-04-10.
  11. von Rheinbaben F, Wolff MH (2002). Handbuch der viruswirksamen Desinfektion (in German). Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-56394-2. ISBN 978-3-642-63179-5.
  12. McDonnell GE, Hansen JM (2021). Block's disinfection, sterilization, and preservation (6th ed.). Philadelphia. ISBN 978-1-4963-8149-1. OCLC 1149169039.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  13. Rutala WA, Weber DJ (June 2019). "Disinfection, sterilization, and antisepsis: An overview". American Journal of Infection Control. 47S: A3–A9. doi:10.1016/j.ajic.2019.01.018. PMID 31146848. S2CID 171094212.
  14. "Miscellaneous Inactivating Agents | Disinfection & Sterilization Guidelines | Guidelines Library | Infection Control | CDC". www.cdc.gov. 2019-04-04. Retrieved 2021-04-11.
  15. "Glossary | Disinfection & Sterilization Guidelines | Guidelines Library | Infection Control | CDC". www.cdc.gov. 2019-04-04. Retrieved 2021-04-10.
  16. Steinmann J, Wolff MH (September 2007). "Testing virucidal activity in Germany: an update". GMS Krankenhaushygiene Interdisziplinar. 2 (1): Doc04. PMC 2831492. PMID 20200665.
  17. "Liste der vom Robert Koch-Institut geprüften und anerkannten Desinfektionsmittel und -verfahren" [List of the disinfectants and methods tested and recognized by the Robert Koch Institut e]. www.rki.de (in German). Retrieved 2021-04-14.
  18. Review of preparations used for hand hygiene. World Health Organization. 2009.
  19. "RKI stellt Wirkungsspektrum "begrenzt viruzid PLUS" vor". HARTMANN GROUP (in German). Retrieved 2021-07-05.
  20. Schwebke I, Eggers M, Gebel J, Geisel B, Glebe D, Rapp I, et al. (March 2017). "Prüfung und Deklaration der Wirksamkeit von Desinfektionsmitteln gegen Viren zur Anwendung im human-medizinischen Bereich: Stellungnahme des Arbeitskreises Viruzidie beim Robert Koch-Institut" [Testing and declaration of the effectiveness of disinfectants against viruses for use in the human medical field: Opinion of the Virucidal Working Group at the Robert Koch Institute]. Bundesgesundheitsblatt - Gesundheitsforschung - Gesundheitsschutz (in German). 60 (3): 353–363. doi:10.1007/s00103-016-2509-2. PMC 7079851. PMID 28220216.
  21. Abelson MB. "Iodine: An Elemental Force Against Infection". www.reviewofophthalmology.com. Retrieved 2021-06-07.
  22. "Regulatory Framework | Disinfection & Sterilization Guidelines | Guidelines Library | Infection Control". www.cdc.gov. 2019-04-04. Retrieved 2021-04-10.
  23. "EPA Authorizes Virucidal Registration for Copper Alloys". www.pfonline.com. 2 March 2021. Retrieved 2021-04-10.
  24. "Efficacy Requirements for Antimicrobial Pesticides". US EPA. 2015-08-05. Retrieved 2021-04-10.
  25. "Emerging Viral Pathogen Guidance for Antimicrobial Pesticides". US EPA. 2016-04-06. Retrieved 2021-04-10.
  26. "EUR-Lex - 32012R0528 - EN - EUR-Lex". eur-lex.europa.eu. Retrieved 2021-08-12.
  27. "Chemical disinfectants and antiseptics. Quantitative suspension test for the evaluation of virucidal activity in the medical area. Test method and requirements (Phase 2/Step 1)". British Standards Institution (BSI). BS EN 14476:2013+A2:2019. Retrieved 2021-04-14.
  28. Eggers M (December 2019). "Infectious Disease Management and Control with Povidone Iodine". Infectious Diseases and Therapy. 8 (4): 581–593. doi:10.1007/s40121-019-00260-x. PMC 6856232. PMID 31414403.
  29. "Chemical disinfectants and antiseptics. Quantitative non-porous surface test without mechanical action for the evaluation of virucidal activity of chemical disinfectants used in the medical area. Test method and requirements (phase 2/step". British Standards Institution (BSI). BS EN 16777:2018. Retrieved 2021-04-14.
  30. Eggerstedt S, Fliß P, Mönch E, Ostermeyer C (August 2018). "Alcohol-based hand rubs must meet the requirements of EN 1500". Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology. 39 (8): 1018. doi:10.1017/ice.2018.129. PMID 29925454.
  31. Goroncy-Bermes P (November 2001). "Hand disinfection according to the European Standard EN 1500 (hygienic handrub): a study with gram-negative and gram-positive test organisms". International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health. 204 (2–3): 123–126. doi:10.1078/1438-4639-00093. PMID 11759154.
  32. "ISO 18184:2019". ISO. 6 August 2020. Retrieved 2022-01-18.
  33. "ISO 21702:2019". ISO. 6 August 2020. Retrieved 2022-01-18.
  34. Ayliffe GA, Babb JR, Quoraishi AH (October 1978). "A test for 'hygienic' hand disinfection". Journal of Clinical Pathology. 31 (10): 923–928. doi:10.1136/jcp.31.10.923. PMC 1145452. PMID 101554.
  35. Dotson GS, Lotter JT, Zisook RE, Gaffney SH, Maier A, Colvin J (September 2020). "Setting occupational exposure limits for antimicrobial agents: A case study based on a quaternary ammonium compound-based disinfectant". Toxicology and Industrial Health. 36 (9): 619–633. doi:10.1177/0748233720970438. PMC 7691478. PMID 33241765.
  36. Egan L (24 April 2020). "Lysol maker warns against internal use of disinfectants after Trump comments". NBC News. Retrieved 2021-04-10.
  37. Kore AM, Kiesche-Nesselrodt A (March 1990). "Toxicology of household cleaning products and disinfectants". The Veterinary Clinics of North America. Small Animal Practice. 20 (2): 525–537. doi:10.1016/s0195-5616(90)50043-1. PMID 2180194.
  38. Greenwood B (2014-06-19). "The contribution of vaccination to global health: past, present and future". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences. 369 (1645): 20130433. doi:10.1098/rstb.2013.0433. PMC 4024226. PMID 24821919.
  39. Stein RA (2011-11-01). "Vaccination: A Public Health Intervention That Changed History & Is Changing with History". The American Biology Teacher. 73 (9): 513–519. doi:10.1525/abt.2011.73.9.3. ISSN 0002-7685. S2CID 86293715.
  40. Modlin JF, Schaffner W, Orenstein W, Bandyopadhyay AS (September 2021). "Triumphs of Immunization". The Journal of Infectious Diseases. 224 (Supplement_4): S307–S308. doi:10.1093/infdis/jiab123. PMC 8482015. PMID 34590131.
  41. Graubner UB (September 2001). "[Antiviral prophylaxis]". Klinische Padiatrie. 213 (Suppl 1): A69–A76. doi:10.1055/s-2001-17508. PMID 11577365. S2CID 260204836.
  42. Speck RF, Brander C, Kündig TM (October 2005). "[HIV-1 vaccination--is there hope?]". Therapeutische Umschau. Revue Therapeutique (in German). 62 (10): 695–702. doi:10.1024/0040-5930.62.10.695. PMID 16277037.
  43. Nachbagauer R, Palese P (January 2020). "Is a Universal Influenza Virus Vaccine Possible?". Annual Review of Medicine. 71 (1): 315–327. doi:10.1146/annurev-med-120617-041310. PMID 31600454. S2CID 204243668.
  44. "GHS Classification". pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved 2021-04-10.
  45. "Label Guidance for Specific Types of Pesticides". US EPA. 2015-08-26. Retrieved 2021-04-10.
  46. "Read the label | Cleaning products". cleanright.eu. Retrieved 2021-04-14.
  47. "Help & Support". www.lysol.com. Retrieved 2021-04-12.
  48. "Hands off the disinfectants, kids!". www.sterillium.info. Retrieved 2021-04-12.
  49. "Sterillium® - Hygiene myths and what you should know". www.sterillium.info. Retrieved 2021-04-12.
  50. Heger S (18 May 2020). "Disinfectant Overkill: Potential Harm for Septic…". Onsite Installer. Retrieved 2021-05-09.
  51. Kramer A, Eggers M, Hübner NO, Steinmann E, Walger P, Exner M (2020-12-07). "Viruzides Gurgeln und viruzider Nasenspray" (PDF). Deutsche Gesellschaft für Krankenhaushygiene: 6.
  52. "Vorbeugung gegen Corona: Warum Gurgeln nicht ausreicht". tagesschau.de (in German). Retrieved 2021-06-03.
  53. Christner J. "Handekzeme weit verbreitet: Hautärzte empfehlen Desinfektion statt Seife". FAZ.NET (in German). ISSN 0174-4909. Retrieved 2021-04-15.
  54. "Handekzeme nehmen zu: Handhygiene-Strategie in Pandemiezeiten ändern". derma.de (in German). Retrieved 2021-04-15.
  55. Hoffman M. "Antibacterial Soap: No Better Than Regular Soap?". WebMD. Retrieved 2021-06-06.
  56. "Press Briefing by White House COVID-19 Response Team and Public Health Officials". The White House. 2021-04-05. Retrieved 2021-04-11.
  57. Morse B (9 April 2021). "The CDC Changed Its Guidance on Cleaning. Here's What That Means for Your Business". Inc.com. Retrieved 2021-04-11.
  58. Gharpure R, Hunter CM, Schnall AH, Barrett CE, Kirby AE, Kunz J, et al. (June 2020). "Knowledge and Practices Regarding Safe Household Cleaning and Disinfection for COVID-19 Prevention - United States, May 2020". MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 69 (23): 705–709. doi:10.15585/mmwr.mm6923e2. PMC 7315790. PMID 32525852.
  59. "Did 4% of Americans Really Drink Bleach Last Year?". Harvard Business Review. 2021-04-20. ISSN 0017-8012. Retrieved 2021-04-22.
  60. "Disinfection & Sterilization Guidelines | Guidelines Library | Infection Control | CDC". www.cdc.gov. 2019-05-24. Retrieved 2021-08-12.
  61. Best M, Springthorpe VS, Sattar SA (June 1994). "Feasibility of a combined carrier test for disinfectants: studies with a mixture of five types of microorganisms". American Journal of Infection Control. 22 (3): 152–162. doi:10.1016/0196-6553(94)90004-3. PMID 7943926.
  62. Waters LJ, Barton SE, Boag FC (December 2006). "Betadine for herpes simplex infection". International Journal of STD & AIDS. 17 (12): 854–855. doi:10.1258/095646206779307487. PMID 17212866. S2CID 27939205.
  63. Anderson DE, Sivalingam V, Kang AE, Ananthanarayanan A, Arumugam H, Jenkins TM, et al. (September 2020). "Povidone-Iodine Demonstrates Rapid In Vitro Virucidal Activity Against SARS-CoV-2, The Virus Causing COVID-19 Disease". Infectious Diseases and Therapy. 9 (3): 669–675. doi:10.1007/s40121-020-00316-3. PMC 7341475. PMID 32643111.
  64. Kawana R, Kitamura T, Nakagomi O, Matsumoto I, Arita M, Yoshihara N, et al. (1997). "Inactivation of human viruses by povidone-iodine in comparison with other antiseptics". Dermatology. 195 (Suppl 2): 29–35. doi:10.1159/000246027. PMID 9403252.
  65. Reimer K, Wichelhaus TA, Schäfer V, Rudolph P, Kramer A, Wutzler P, et al. (2002). "Antimicrobial effectiveness of povidone-iodine and consequences for new application areas". Dermatology. 204 (Suppl 1): 114–120. doi:10.1159/000057738. PMID 12011534. S2CID 8403205.
  66. Clark D (24 April 2020). "Trump suggests 'injection' of disinfectant to beat coronavirus and 'clean' the lungs". NBC News. Retrieved 2021-04-10.
  67. Coppock RW, Mostrom MS, Lillie LE (October 1988). "The toxicology of detergents, bleaches, antiseptics and disinfectants in small animals". Veterinary and Human Toxicology. 30 (5): 463–473. PMID 3055653.
  68. Slaughter RJ, Watts M, Vale JA, Grieve JR, Schep LJ (May 2019). "The clinical toxicology of sodium hypochlorite". Clinical Toxicology. 57 (5): 303–311. doi:10.1080/15563650.2018.1543889. PMID 30689457. S2CID 59339240.
  69. "Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2020-02-11. Retrieved 2021-04-10.
  70. Khokhar M, Roy D, Purohit P, Goyal M, Setia P (October 2020). "Viricidal treatments for prevention of coronavirus infection". Pathogens and Global Health. 114 (7): 349–359. doi:10.1080/20477724.2020.1807177. PMC 7586723. PMID 32877308.
  71. Meister TL, Brüggemann Y, Todt D, Conzelmann C, Müller JA, Groß R, et al. (September 2020). "Virucidal Efficacy of Different Oral Rinses Against Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2". The Journal of Infectious Diseases. 222 (8): 1289–1292. doi:10.1093/infdis/jiaa471. PMC 7454736. PMID 32726430.
  72. "Healthcare Workers". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2020-02-11. Retrieved 2021-04-11.
  73. Ortega KL, Rech BO, El Haje GL, Gallo CB, Pérez-Sayáns M, Braz-Silva PH (December 2020). "Do hydrogen peroxide mouthwashes have a virucidal effect? A systematic review". The Journal of Hospital Infection. 106 (4): 657–662. doi:10.1016/j.jhin.2020.10.003. PMC 7548555. PMID 33058941.
  74. Xu, Chuan; Wang, Annie; Hoskin, Eileen R.; Cugini, Carla; Markowitz, Kenneth; Chang, Theresa L.; Fine, Daniel H. (2021-03-01). "Differential Effects of Antiseptic Mouth Rinses on SARS-CoV-2 Infectivity In Vitro". Pathogens (Basel, Switzerland). 10 (3): 272. doi:10.3390/pathogens10030272. ISSN 2076-0817. PMC 8001756. PMID 33804294.
  75. Hollins D, Kiorpes AL (September 2020). "Evaluating the industrial hygiene, toxicology, and public health aspects of COVID-19". Toxicology and Industrial Health. 36 (9): 605–606. doi:10.1177/0748233720964629. PMC 7593727. PMID 33107408.
  76. Sabino CP, Ball AR, Baptista MS, Dai T, Hamblin MR, Ribeiro MS, et al. (November 2020). "Light-based technologies for management of COVID-19 pandemic crisis". Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology B: Biology. 212: 111999. doi:10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2020.111999. PMC 7435279. PMID 32855026.
  77. Storm N, McKay LG, Downs SN, Johnson RI, Birru D, de Samber M, et al. (December 2020). "Rapid and complete inactivation of SARS-CoV-2 by ultraviolet-C irradiation". Scientific Reports. 10 (1): 22421. Bibcode:2020NatSR..1022421S. doi:10.1038/s41598-020-79600-8. PMC 7773738. PMID 33380727.
  78. "Committee Reports". Illuminating Engineering Society. 8 April 2020. Retrieved 2021-07-08.
  79. "Filtration / Disinfection". American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE). Retrieved 2021-07-08.
  80. Burton MJ, Clarkson JE, Goulao B, Glenny AM, McBain AJ, Schilder AG, et al. (September 2020). "Antimicrobial mouthwashes (gargling) and nasal sprays administered to patients with suspected or confirmed COVID-19 infection to improve patient outcomes and to protect healthcare workers treating them". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2020 (9): CD013627. doi:10.1002/14651858.cd013627.pub2. PMC 8187985. PMID 32936948.
  81. Kariwa H, Fujii N, Takashima I (2006). "Inactivation of SARS coronavirus by means of povidone-iodine, physical conditions and chemical reagents". Dermatology. 212 (Suppl. 1): 119–123. doi:10.1159/000089211. PMC 7179540. PMID 16490989.
  82. "International Society of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy (ISAC)". www.isac.world. Retrieved 2021-08-04.
  83. "Efficacy | Disinfection & Sterilization Guidelines | Guidelines Library | Infection Control | CDC". www.cdc.gov. 2019-04-04. Retrieved 2021-06-03.
  84. "What Is BS EN 14476 Chemical Disinfectant Standards - Hand Sanitisers". Rentex Hygiene - Washroom and Hygiene Products. 2020-11-20. Retrieved 2021-04-14.
  85. "Biological Safety: Disinfection | Office of Environmental Health and Safety". ehs.princeton.edu. Retrieved 2021-04-17.
  86. "List of cleaning products", Wikipedia, 2021-03-27, retrieved 2021-04-17
  87. "Disinfectants Pesticides". cfpub.epa.gov. Retrieved 9 April 2021.
  88. "List N: Disinfectants for Coronavirus (COVID-19)". US EPA. 2020-03-13. Retrieved 9 April 2021.
  89. Katz DH, Marcelletti JF, Khalil MH, Pope LE, Katz LR (December 1991). "Antiviral activity of 1-docosanol, an inhibitor of lipid-enveloped viruses including herpes simplex". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 88 (23): 10825–10829. Bibcode:1991PNAS...8810825K. doi:10.1073/pnas.88.23.10825. PMC 53024. PMID 1660151.
  90. Sauerbrei A (September 2020). "Bactericidal and virucidal activity of ethanol and povidone-iodine". MicrobiologyOpen. 9 (9): e1097. doi:10.1002/mbo3.1097. PMC 7520996. PMID 32567807.
  91. Boyce JM, Pittet D, et al. (Recommendations of the Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee and the HICPAC/SHEA/APIC/IDSA Hand Hygiene Task Force.) (October 2002). "Guideline for Hand Hygiene in Health-Care Settings. Recommendations of the Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee and the HICPAC/SHEA/APIC/IDSA Hand Hygiene Task Force. Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America/Association for Professionals in Infection Control/Infectious Diseases Society of America" (PDF). MMWR. Recommendations and Reports. Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America/Association for Professionals in Infection Control/Infectious Diseases Society of America. 51 (RR-16): 1–45, quiz CE1-4. PMID 12418624.
  92. "IMPRESAN Hygiene Spray 250 ml". www.heitmann-hygiene-care.de. Retrieved 2021-04-14.
  93. "Factsheets & Advice - Diseases | Home Hygiene & Health". ifh-homehygiene.org. Retrieved 9 April 2021.
  94. Westerholm HS, Bradley DV, Schwartz RS (January 1992). "Efficacy of various spray disinfectants on irreversible hydrocolloid impressions". The International Journal of Prosthodontics. 5 (1): 47–54. PMID 1520443.
  95. Sauerbrei A, Wutzler P (August 2010). "Virucidal efficacy of povidone-iodine-containing disinfectants". Letters in Applied Microbiology. 51 (2): 158–163. doi:10.1111/j.1472-765x.2010.02871.x. PMID 20536707. S2CID 38036694.
  96. "Hand Hygiene Guidance | Hand Hygiene | CDC". www.cdc.gov. 2020-01-30. Retrieved 9 April 2021.
  97. Siddharta A, Pfaender S, Vielle NJ, Dijkman R, Friesland M, Becker B, et al. (March 2017). "Virucidal Activity of World Health Organization-Recommended Formulations Against Enveloped Viruses, Including Zika, Ebola, and Emerging Coronaviruses". The Journal of Infectious Diseases. 215 (6): 902–906. doi:10.1093/infdis/jix046. PMC 5407053. PMID 28453839.
  98. "Publications, Data, & Statistics | Handwashing | CDC". www.cdc.gov. 2020-10-08. Retrieved 2021-04-10.
  99. "Infografiken". www.infektionsschutz.de (in German). Retrieved 2021-04-14.
  100. Office of the Commissioner (2020-09-09). "Antibacterial Soap? You Can Skip It, Use Plain Soap and Water". FDA.
  101. Mathur P (November 2011). "Hand hygiene: back to the basics of infection control". The Indian Journal of Medical Research. 134 (5): 611–620. doi:10.4103/0971-5916.90985. PMC 3249958. PMID 22199099.
  102. "Why Hand-Washing Beats Hand Sanitizers". WebMD. Retrieved 2021-06-06.
  103. Kampf G (April 2018). "Efficacy of ethanol against viruses in hand disinfection". The Journal of Hospital Infection. 98 (4): 331–338. doi:10.1016/j.jhin.2017.08.025. PMC 7132458. PMID 28882643.
  104. "Infection Protection at the Core of Science". Bode Science Center. Hartmann Group. Retrieved 2021-06-02.
  105. Kramer A, Rudolph P, Kampf G, Pittet D (April 2002). "Limited efficacy of alcohol-based hand gels". Lancet. 359 (9316): 1489–1490. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(02)08426-x. PMID 11988252. S2CID 30450670.
  106. Geddes A (July 2017). "Graham Ayliffe". BMJ. 358: j3333. doi:10.1136/bmj.j3333. PMID 28694289. S2CID 29226430.
  107. WHO guidelines on hand hygiene in health care : first global patient safety challenge clean care is safer care. Geneva: World Health Organization. Patient Safety. 2009. ISBN 978-92-4-159790-6. OCLC 854907565.
  108. "WHO guidelines on hand hygiene in health care". Retrieved 2021-08-15.
  109. Urban MV, Rath T, Radtke C (June 2019). "Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2): a review of its use in surgery". Wiener Medizinische Wochenschrift. 169 (9–10): 222–225. doi:10.1007/s10354-017-0610-2. PMID 29147868. S2CID 35739209.
  110. "Chlorhexidine gluconate oral rinse Uses, Side Effects & Warnings". Drugs.com. Retrieved 2021-06-06.
  111. "Chlorhexidine - FDA prescribing information, side effects and uses". Drugs.com. Retrieved 2021-06-03.
  112. "Dequalinium chloride". pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved 2021-06-03.
  113. Frank S, Capriotti J, Brown SM, Tessema B (November 2020). "Povidone-Iodine Use in Sinonasal and Oral Cavities: A Review of Safety in the COVID-19 Era". Ear, Nose, & Throat Journal. 99 (9): 586–593. doi:10.1177/0145561320932318. PMID 32520599.
  114. "cleanright.eu - General guidance in case someone is ill in your household". cleanright.eu. Retrieved 9 April 2021.
  115. "Betadine for Medical Professionals | Betadine". Betadine (Povidone-iodine) | Betadine. Retrieved 2021-06-06.
  116. "COVID-19". Betadine (Povidone-iodine) | Betadine. Retrieved 2021-06-06.
  117. "Zonrox Bleach". Green Cross Inc. Retrieved 9 April 2021.
  118. Croughan WS, Behbehani AM (February 1988). "Comparative study of inactivation of herpes simplex virus types 1 and 2 by commonly used antiseptic agents". Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 26 (2): 213–215. doi:10.1128/jcm.26.2.213-215.1988. PMC 266254. PMID 2830306.
  119. "Henkel-Reiniger | biff Hygiene Total: mit antibakterieller Formel". www.henkel-reiniger.de. Retrieved 2021-04-14.
  120. "Henkel-Reiniger | Hygienische Sauberkeit: Für ein sauberes Zuhause". www.henkel-reiniger.de. Retrieved 2021-04-14.
  121. "Henkel-Reiniger | Bref Power Bakterien und Schimmel: gegen Viren und Bakterien". www.henkel-reiniger.de. Retrieved 2021-04-14.
  122. "IMPRESAN Universal Hygiene Laundry Rinse 1.5 L". www.heitmann-hygiene-care.de. Retrieved 2021-04-14.
  123. "Hygiene und Desinfektion | Online kaufen". www.heitmann-hygiene-care.de. Retrieved 2021-04-14.
  124. Buckle J (2015-01-01). "How Essential Oils Work". Clinical Aromatherapy. Churchill Livingstone. pp. 15–36. doi:10.1016/B978-0-7020-5440-2.00002-4. ISBN 978-0-7020-5440-2.
  125. Walmsley, A. D. (2007-01-01). "Management of inflammatory periodontal diseases". Restorative Dentistry (2nd ed.). pp. 31–46. doi:10.1016/B978-0-443-10246-2.50008-3. ISBN 9780443102462.
  126. "About Sterillium®". www.sterillium.info. Retrieved 2021-04-12.
  127. "55 Years of Hygiene History with Sterillium®". www.sterillium.info. Retrieved 2021-04-12.
  128. "Auriclosene". pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved 9 April 2021.
  129. "Disinfectants Pesticides". cfpub.epa.gov. Retrieved 9 April 2021.
  130. Ogata N, Shibata T (January 2008). "Protective effect of low-concentration chlorine dioxide gas against influenza A virus infection". The Journal of General Virology. 89 (Pt 1): 60–67. doi:10.1099/vir.0.83393-0. PMID 18089729.
  131. "Toxicological profile for chlorine dioxide and chlorite". Toxic Substances Portal, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, U.S. Department of Health & Human Services. 2004. doi:10.15620/cdc:37580. hdl:2027/mdp.39015069123621.
  132. Röcker AE, Müller JA, Dietzel E, Harms M, Krüger F, Heid C, et al. (April 2018). "The molecular tweezer CLR01 inhibits Ebola and Zika virus infection". Antiviral Research. 152: 26–35. doi:10.1016/j.antiviral.2018.02.003. PMC 7113745. PMID 29428508.
  133. Dupont B. "In die Zange genommen". Laborjournal. Retrieved 2021-07-12.
  134. Harrison C (April 2020). "Coronavirus puts drug repurposing on the fast track". Nature Biotechnology. 38 (4): 379–381. doi:10.1038/d41587-020-00003-1. PMID 32205870. S2CID 213394680.
  135. Mehendale R, Joshi M, Patravale VB (2013). "Nanomedicines for treatment of viral diseases". Critical Reviews in Therapeutic Drug Carrier Systems. 30 (1): 1–49. doi:10.1615/CritRevTherDrugCarrierSyst.2013005469. PMID 23510109.
  136. Gurunathan S, Qasim M, Choi Y, Do JT, Park C, Hong K, et al. (August 2020). "Antiviral Potential of Nanoparticles-Can Nanoparticles Fight Against Coronaviruses?". Nanomaterials. 10 (9): 1645. doi:10.3390/nano10091645. PMC 7557932. PMID 32825737.
  137. Abd Ellah NH, Tawfeek HM, John J, Hetta HF (June 2019). "Nanomedicine as a future therapeutic approach for Hepatitis C virus". Nanomedicine. 14 (11): 1471–1491. doi:10.2217/nnm-2018-0348. PMID 31166139. S2CID 174811201.
  138. "Anti-Infectives". Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research. Retrieved 2021-07-05.
  139. Becker B, Brill FH, Todt D, Steinmann E, Lenz J, Paulmann D, et al. (2017-11-10). "Virucidal efficacy of peracetic acid for instrument disinfection". Antimicrobial Resistance and Infection Control. 6 (1): 114. doi:10.1186/s13756-017-0271-3. PMC 5693215. PMID 29177047.
  140. "Vanproz Agrovet LLP". vanproz.com. Retrieved 9 April 2021.
  141. "Virkon". VIRKON. Retrieved 9 April 2021.
  142. "DK Excited". Bayer Crop Science UK. Retrieved 2021-04-10.

Further reading
This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.