Water resources management in Jamaica

The internal renewable water resources (IRWR) are 9.4 km³/year, with 5.5 and 3.9 km³/year for surface and groundwater respectively. Approximately 44% of these IRWR are considered exploitable or reliable. Of the total reliable yield of 4.09 km³/year, 80% is contributed from the limestone aquifer, 4% from the alluvial aquifer which is made up of sediments (sand, silt, clay, gravel) and 16% from surface water runoff. About 20% of the limestone aquifer is developed with wells, mainly in the Río Cobre and Rio Minho regions. In most other basins, the base flow is adequate to supply water and can be exploited through developments on the rivers.[3]

The Black River.

There are two major raw water storage facilities, both located in St. Andrew. The Mona Reservoir, with intakes at the Hope and Yallahs Rivers, has a storage capacity of 3.67 million m³. Hermitage Reservoir with intakes at Ginger River and Wag/Morsham River, has a storage capacity 1.78 million m³.[3]

Jamaica counts over one hundred rivers and many are still unexplored due to their significant fall from the mountainous regions. For the most part, the rivers are used for irrigation and as a resource for domestic uses. Two important rivers in Jamaica include the Black River and the Rio Minho. The Black river is 53.4 km long and is used for tourism, irrigation, and transporating trees to the Caribbean ports where they are then sent to England. The Rio Minho is the longest river in Jamaica at nearly 93 km with headwaters originating in the geographic center of the country.

Managing Director of the Water Resources Authority (WRA), Basil Fernandez, has expressed his view that Jamaica's water quality is among the best in the world. He stated in 2008 on the Jamaica Information Service that, "you have to remember that our water is not tainted by pharmaceuticals and chemicals found in water from other countries,". Mr. Fernandez added that, "the high quality of water is also a result of the rigorous process of water treatment that we have. In fact, people in many other countries do not drink the water that is provided from their municipal service. In Jamaica, we have stringently sought to achieve the World Health Organization (WHO) and the Ministry of Health's water quality standards".[4]

However, a study published in 2010 by a researcher at Missouri State University raises some concern about the quality of Jamaica's water in an important region of Jamaica, the Bluefields Bay watershed. The research indicates that water supplies for drinking water and ecological support in Jamaica are threatened due to poverty and poor infrastructure. Domestic and commercial activities pollute rivers and coastal waters as well. The report goes on to say that the best water quality is found at sites where stream systems filter water through healthy wetland environments, and at sites further away from settled areas and lined with larger riparian corridors. The worst water quality is normally located in streams that have little or no riparian zones and are heavily used for washing clothes.[5]

Only 11% of the surface water and 25% of groundwater of the exploitable water resources were utilized as of 1998. The National Water Commission (NWC) provides water to various supply systems from wells, rivers and springs. A total of 500 water-supply facilities are operated by the NWC and supply 78% of total demand.[3] Access to water supply in 1998 was available to 75% of the rural population and to 95% of those residing in urban areas. Access to water supply via house connections was available to approximately 65% of the population.[3]

The remaining 35% of the population were supplied through a variety of standpipes, rainwater collection systems, water trucks, wayside tanks, and community catchment tanks. Annual water withdrawal in 2002 was estimated in 0.41 billion m³ and the agricultural sector was the major user of water (48%). The other major water users were domestic water supply 34%, industry 17% and tourism 1%. About 92% of the water was withdrawn from groundwater sources and the remainder from surface water.[3]

A map of Jamaica.

According to the National Irrigation Development Plan (NIDP) suitable areas for irrigation are classified into three land categories: i) lands which may be irrigated with all common techniques of irrigation; ii) lands suited only to sprinkler and micro-irrigation techniques; and iii), lands with generally steep slopes (>10%), shallow top soils which are productive with careful management and manual irrigation. This third category applies mainly to small hillside farmers. By these categories, 90,811 ha were classified as either category i or ii, while 97,095 ha or 9% of the island were classified as Category iii.[3]

Irrigation has always played a significant role in the island's agriculture, and the need to continuously improve irrigation practices has long been recognized. Over the years some of the improvements which have been made included channel lining and utilization of closed pipes in order to improve efficiency in conveyance infrastructure, the use of water measuring techniques to encourage improved management, and the use of overnight storage facilities. Approximately 9% (about 25,000 ha) of the area under cultivation are irrigated, and about 9,000 ha require rehabilitation.[3]

Half of the total irrigated area comprises public schemes which are managed by the National Irrigation Commission (NIC), while the other half is on individual private systems and on commercial estates, where banana, papaya and sugar cane are the major crops grown. Three-quarters of the area are under surface irrigation, 17% are equipped with sprinklers and 7% with micro-irrigation or localized systems.[3] Groundwater is being threatened by saline intrusion and contamination from industrial effluents and untreated municipal discharges. For these reasons wastewater reuse is included in the National Irrigation Development Plan (NIDP).

In the urban areas of Jamaica, there is a high proportion of land area covered with impermeable materials such as asphalt and concrete meaning that rainwater cannot soak into the ground, or is left to run-off into natural water courses. The Government of Jamaica is aware of existing problems and missed opportunities with urban drainage. Some of these include poorly defined institutional responsibilities, and inadequate coordination between the relevant water management institutions. Provision for drainage and maintenance of drainage systems are often inadequate as well. The result is an ongoing deterioration of road surfaces and flooding in many cases.[2]

The Government is putting forth an effort to ensure that urban drainage is treated as an integral part of the water sector. Key objectives in this sector include: i) improving coordination between the various institutions involved in the sector; ii) improving the quality of urban drainage, both in its initial provision and its maintenance; iii) maximizing efficiency in the provision of urban drainage; iv) and reducing harmful effects on the environment by better planning for drainage discharges.[2]

Dunn's River Falls in Ocho Ríos.

Jamaica was one of the first countries in the world to install a hydroelectricity plant, its first being located just outside Spanish Town in the 1890s. Currently there are nine hydroelectricity plants ranging from 0.2MW to 6MW with an overall generating capacity of 23 MW installed in Jamaica. There is a potential for the installation of at least an additional 30 MW of hydroelectric capacity in Jamaica. With the continued increase in global oil prices, hydroelectric power has become a priority for Jamaica, and they are now more competitive in this arena.[7]

The Water Resources Act (1995) was declared as a new statute in the Jamaican Parliament in September 1995 and enacted into law on April 1, 1996. This marked a 25-year effort to address the deficiencies in legislation for the proper administration, development, and optimal use of the island's water resources. The Act gives the Water Resources Authority (WRA) the responsibility for planning. A National Water Plan recommends projects and programs that should be taken in respect of the development, control, usage, and storage of water as well as its supply, distribution and disposal.[8]

The Watersheds Protection Act (1963) is the law governing watersheds in Jamaica and is administered by the Natural Resources Conservation Authority. The primary focus of the Act is the conservation of water resources by protecting lands and riparian zones along the watersheds. The Act is intended to ensure proper land use in vital watershed areas, reduce soil erosion, maintain optimum levels of groundwater, and promote regular flows in waterways.[9]

• NWC is Jamaica's National Water Commission and is a statutory organisation charged with the responsibility of providing high quality potable water and wastewater services, maintaining the water infrastructure in good working conditions, and to protect the natural environment.[10] Provision for rural water is shared between the NWC and the Parish Councils.
• NIC is Jamaica's National Irrigation Commission and is an agency within the Ministry of Agriculture that was established in 1986. The NIC is charged with developing irrigation systems and to provide efficient and effective irrigation services to the agricultural community. NIC duties are to manage, operate, maintain and expand irrigation systems. NIC also sets rates for irrigation water and collects these water use fees.[11]
• WRA is Jamaica's Water Resources Authority is responsible for the management, protection, and controlled allocation and use of Jamaica's water resources. The WRA maintains a hydrological database and provides data, information, and technical assistance to government and non-government institutions.[12]
• NEPA is the National Environment and Planning Agency and works closely with the Water Resources Authority (WRA). NEPA promotes sustainable development by ensuring protection of the environment and orderly development in Jamaica. In draft format at this time, NEPA is working to create a watershed management policy.[13]