Yousuf Shah Chak

Before the last rituals of Ali Shah, Abdal Chak started a campaign to contest for the throne. Sayyid Mubarak tried to restrain Abdal Chak from these activities by sending Baba Khalil to him. Later he visited him and requested him to attend the funeral with the rest of the royal family,[20] but this all went in vain as Abdal Chak couldn't forgive Yousuf of what he did to Aiba Khan. Before returning to the court of Yousuf, Sayyid Mubarak warned Abdal Chak that Yousuf was on a much better position than him.[21][22] Yousuf, on the advice of Sayyid Mubarak and the other nobles, started to organise his army. On the other hand, Abdal Chak also arranged his forces for retaliation.[23]

Abdal Chak and his forces first encountered the advance guard of Yousuf's army led by Muhammad Khan at Nauhatta. Abdal Chak was wounded after being hit by a bullet. While both sides faced heavy losses, Muhammad Khan was reinforced by Sayyid Mubarak with 2000 horses. After a fierce fight, Abdal Chak was finally killed by Sayyid Mubarak himself[24] and Yousuf, after being ensured that Abdal Chak has been killed, came forward from the rear guard and proclaimed victory while rest of Abdal Chak's disfigured army ran in disgrace pursued by Yousuf's men.[25] Yousuf forbade Abdal Chak's burial but was secretly buried by some Sayyids against the Sultan's orders. After Ali Shah's funeral, Yousuf Shah was officially crowned Sultan on the next day.[26][27]

After over 2 months of Yousuf's rule in the valley, another rebellion rose to power. Still, this time led by a minister in his cabinet Abdal Bhat who was a contender for the office of the Wazīr i Azam but was declined over Muhammad Bhat.[19] Abdal Bhat convinced the majority of the nobles and ministers who were unsatisfied with Yousuf over his negligence in the civil and administrative services as he spent quality time in the presence of women and booze with music and a company of poets.[28] Abdal Bhat modelled Sayyid Mubarak as Sultan after getting Yousuf deposed. Sayyid Mubarak, reluctant at first, agreed as Yousuf was unwilling to cooperate in peace talks even after Sayyid's efforts for reconciliation through the office of Baba Khalil and joined the rebels.[29]

Even though his senior ministers like Naji Malik warned him to send a more experienced and observant commander, Yousuf sent a force under Muhammad Khan against the rebels in Eidgah, Srinagar.[30] After a ferocious clash between the two sides, Muhammad Khan was killed with 300 of his men. This spread a ray of terror among the rest of the army which was later disintegrated.[31][32]

When the nobles became dissatisfied with Sayyid after he asserted his own authority rather than being dominated by them, they rebelled and asked Yousuf to return.[37] Yousuf agreed and left Thanna but when he reached Barbal, Sayyid sent him his peace negotiators to which Yousuf sent his sons Yakub and Ibrahim with Mulla Hasan Aswad and Daud Mir.[36] With this great initiative, he readied himself to visit Sayyid himself but Abdal Bhat, who now led the rebellious faction, was on a different page. He was unhappy because of the sudden advancements between the two sides and started to hatch a plot that would end in his favour. Abdal told Yousuf not to believe in Sayyid's words as he can be traitorous. Yousuf agreed, broke off all the ties with Sayyid, and called his negotiators back.[38] Sayyid attacked Yousuf and, with no help from the nobles who gave him their words, was forced to retreat to Thanna again.[39]

Abdal Bhat continued his deceptive plans and made Sayyid Mubarak abdicate in November 1579.[40] He made Lohar Khan, the son of Shankar Chak and a cousin of Yousuf, the Sultan and appointed himself as the Wazīr i Azam.[41] He also threw the insolent nobles in prison and sent a message to Yousuf not to enter Srinagar ever again.[42]

Lohar Khan now despatched Haidar Chak, whom he stationed at Hirpora thinking that Yousuf and his army will cross the Pir Panjal route.[52] Still, in reality Yousuf left a small batch behind and left for Poonch and through the Toshamaidan Pass entered Kashmir.[53] He defeated Lohar's forces at Chira Har and then at Sopore. While crossing the Jhelum river, he destroyed the Sopore bridge and occupied the entire country beyond it.[54][55] Lohar Khan released Ali Chak to gain his support[56] and called all of his forces back to Srinagar including Haidar Chak who was at Hirpora and set out with a large army towards Sopore but when he saw the bridge razed to ground, he tried to cross it with the means of boats. Still, he was unsuccessful as there was an equally better resistance from the other side of the bank.[57]

After this descent move, Lohar detached a faction of 2000 men under Haidar Chak and ordered him to attack Yousuf through the Khuyahom Pass while he stayed back to watch the enemy's movement.[58][59] Meanwhile, he sent a message to Yousuf through Baba Khalil that he'll be attacked from the rear and the front and will be left with no other choice but to run away, so he should immediately withdraw from his position and move back. In return, he would be given the jagir of Dachun Khovur.[60][61] This, for a moment, disheartened Yousuf as he was numerically inferior to the opposition but Hasan Malik encouraged him and guaranteed him victory.[53]

In the early morning of 8 November 1580, Yousuf crossed the Jhelum river and made a surprise attack on the enemy.[62] For retaliation, Lohar Khan sent Ali Bhat with 2000 of his men but was beaten back and defeated.[63] Yousuf's army then marched towards Abdal Bhat, who, after a fierce clash, was killed.[64] Lohar Khan, seeing this, retreated to Brathana (Budgam) and after facing defeat again retreated to Srinagar. Yousuf entered Srinagar without much resistance and proclaimed himself Sultan after 1 year and 11 months in exile[65] and also appointed Muhammad Bhat as his Wazīr i Azam.[62]

Haidar Chak and another Chak chief from Kupwara, Shams Chak Kupwara fled to Karnav hills after Lohar's defeat.[70] Haidar advised Shams not to stay there for long as Yousuf will soon find out about their whereabouts and will despatch a strong force against them which they'll not be able to resist.[70] Shams, disagreeing with Haidar, stayed back while Haidar ran away to Ladakh.[71] Yousuf, after some time, sent a force against the rebels through the Karnav hills just as Haidar predicted.[72] Seeing this, Shams left Karnav and occupied the fort of Firuz in Pakhli but due to his cruelties in the garrison, the soldiers and chiefs made a request to Lohar for a raid and capture Shams.[73] Lohar did accordingly and led siege to the fort, occupying it shortly after. Shams surrendered and was taken to Yousuf who had him blinded.[74]

In early 1581, Yousuf's cousin Shams Khan Chak, Alam Sher Magre and other nobles started planning to overthrow Yousuf's authority. Still, Yousuf was alerted and arrested the nobles, who were later imprisoned.[75] Alarmed by the advancements, Habib Khan Chak, another noble from the royal family, escaped to the hills where he met with Haidar Chak.[76] Both of them agreed on taking the help of the then Gyalpo of Ladakh Tsewang Namgyal.[77] The Gyalpo secured them the aid of about 4000 horses. Hearing of this, Yousuf sent an army against them, which the rebels couldn't resist as there was no unity between them.[70] The Ladakhi forces withdrew and the rebels either panicked and ran away or surrendered to Yousuf's forces. Haidar Chak went away to Kishtwar while Habib Chak made his way towards Srinagar secretly after finding no routes to escape anywhere else.[78] Habib didn't stop there as he started to make trouble in Srinagar but was found and seized in the village of Sonawar near Takht i Sulaiman.[79] Other nobles like Yusuf Khan and his brothers were seized as well and on the orders of Yousuf, had their limbs removed while Habib was blinded.[80]

After the revolt led by the nobles, Yousuf had to deal with his Wazīr i Azam Muhammad Bhat. Muhammad Bhat had a grudge against Shams Duni and wanted to punish him. Still, Yousuf opposed him.[78] Muhammad Bhat decided to assassinate him with the help of Yusuf Khan but the plot was discovered and Muhammad Bhat fled but was found and imprisoned with some of his followers while the rest escaped too Haidar Chak who was at that time in Kishtwar.[81]

Yakub Shah, Yousuf's son, deserted the royal chamber and escaped to Kishtwar with Aiba Khan Bhat, the son of Abdal Bhat. However, Mulla Hasan Aswad brought him back on the orders of Yousuf but Aiba Bhat remained with Haidar Chak.[82] Other than Aiba Bhat, Shams Chak also joined Haidar Chak after escaping from the prison when Yousuf was away in Lar.[83][84] This made Yousuf worried and in 1582 he despatched Sher Ali Bhat and Naji Malik with a large army against Haidar Chak in Kishtwar. Sher Ali was killed and Naji Malik was captured in a night attack.[85] This defeat highly favoured the rebels as they further organised their army.

Meanwhile, Yousuf departed with a much larger army and gave Yakub the command of the advanceguard to crush the rebels. However, the rebels made a counterattack and defeated Yakub's men who joined the main army.[78] Even though the majority of the soldiers stepped back, Yakub continued to resist with the rest of the army and after a severe engagement, defeated and routed the rebels.[86] Haidar Chak, along with Shams Chak and Aiba Bhat, fled while Yousuf came to the front and declared victory. He also rewarded Ibrahim and Abul Maali with Khilaats and Jagirs for their courage and bravery.[87] Shams Chak and Aiba Bhat later started peace negotiations with Yousuf who forgave them and granted them Jagirs on the advice of the Raja of Kishtwar.[88]

Haidar, on the other hand, refused to surrender and went to Lahore, receiving the protection of Raja Man Singh, who gave him the Jagir of Bhimber.[89] Yousuf sent Khwaja Qasim to counteract the actions of Haidar but returned unsuccessful. Raja Man Singh, who was angry on Yousuf for not commanding the Mughal troops in Kashmir during the civil war, favoured Haidar for the seat of Sultan and also to strengthen the Mughal sovereignty in Kashmir through a local pawn.[90]

Akbar sent Mirza Tahir and Salih Aqil as Mughal ambassadors to Kashmir from Jalalabad when he was returning from Kabul in late 1581. Yousuf received the ambassadors in Baramulla and with every mark of respect, brought them back to Srinagar.[76] The ambassadors delivered the imperial command that Yousuf was not keeping the royal court aware of the matters in Kashmir and Yousuf should also pay personal homage to the Emperor immediately if he's free of any internal dispute.[91] Yousuf discussed the matter with his ministers. They advised Yousuf to leave the life of ease and luxury and prepare for resistance as Akbar is anxious to annex Kashmir[92] but Yousuf paid no attention to their advice and sent precious gifts and his youngest son Haidar Khan with Mirza Tahir and Salih Aqil[93][94] but these expressions of loyalty didn't satisfy Akbar who sent back Haidar after a year along with Yaqub Sarfi,[95] who was told to represent Akbar's order in the presence Yousuf that he should proceed to the royal court at once or else an army will be sent against him to conquer his land.[96]

Shortly after, Timur Beg was despatched by Raja Man Singh as the Mughal ambassador to Kashmir with the same order.[97] This frightened Yousuf with the repeated summons and sent his eldest son Yakub with Timur Beg.[98][99] Yakub was presented to Akbar on 9 February 1585.[100] Instead of expressing his approval, Akbar was displeased that Yousuf has evaded his orders not once but twice and has sent his sons who were neither fit for military service nor were ethical with their words.[99]

When Akbar left for Kabul Subah for some internal matters, he sent Hakim Ali Gilani and Baha-ud-din Kambu as his ambassadors to Kashmir on 1 October 1585 with the orders to pay homage to the Emperor as he was in Punjab this time.[101][102] Yousuf was receiving reports from his son on Akbar's plans regarding Kashmir and after these envoys consulted his counsellors and ministers who begged him to pay more attention to the public, organise his army and to focus more on resisting the upcoming invasion but Yousuf was blinded by Akbar's orders that he should visit the Emperor himself.[103][104] He was also concerned over Yakub as he was with the Mughals, who may treat him based on how Yousuf may act.[105] Not only the ministers, every person, rich or poor, old or young, were ready to resist the invasion but it helped Yousuf no more who had lost the will to resist.[106]

As the discussions progressed, Yakub secretly escaped the Mughal camp in Khawaspur and reached Srinagar before the envoys.[107][108][109] Yakub was unhappy on how Akbar treated him[110][99] but Yousuf cared no less who wanted to punish him but was stopped by the ministers.[111] Shortly After, Yousuf received Hakim Ali and Baha-ud-din at Khampur and brought them to Srinagar.[112] Both the ambassadors stayed in Srinagar for two months and failed to bring Yousuf with them as the Kashmiris forced Yousuf not to go with them even though he was mentally prepared to accompany the envoy.[113][114] The envoys left Kashmir and joined the imperial Mughal camp at Hasan Abdal on 13 December 1585.[115][76]

When Akbar heard of this report, he became highly enraged and just after a week on 20 December 1585,[112] despatched a force of about 5000 horses to invade Kashmir under the commands of Mirza Shah Rukh, Raja Bhagwant Das and Shah Quli Mahram while Haidar Chak and Yaqub Sarfi as guides.[116][117][118] The Mughal commanders wanted to invade Kashmir in early spring as the routes will be cleared of snow and also to take the Bhimber route which was much easier to ride on as the chiefs of Bhimber were slightly inclined towards the Mughals but on the orders of Akbar they moved in the harsh winter and also through the Pakhli route as Kashmiris wouldn't be expecting an invasion in the cold winter through Pakhli.[119] Akbar's assessment was proved right as the Mughal forces easily entered Kashmir.[120]

When this news entered Srinagar, the people came to Yousuf and begged him to organise a resistance as they'll be facing harsh circumstances just how they did last time against the Kashgarians when they invaded Kashmir some decades ago.[121] Yousuf, to please his subjects, organised an army for the defence of Kashmir.[122][99] He released Muhammad Bhat and Alam Sher Magre from the prison and proceeded with the latter to Baramulla and left the former in charge of the capital.[123] At Baramulla he organised three armies, Hasan Malik and Alam Sher Khan commanded the advanceguard, the right was left under Yakub and Abu'l Maali. At the same time, the left was placed under Baba Talib Isfahani and Hasan Bhat, the younger son of Muhammad Bhat. After these appointments, Yousuf proceeded to the Baramulla Pass.[124]

The Mughals and the Kashmiris met at the Buliasa Pass but both the sides were met with hostilities due to the harsh conditions, scarcity of supplies and many other circumstances.[125] Seeing this Raja Bhagwant Das sent an envoy to Yousuf which warned him that the Mughals will be supplied with heavy reinforcements and then it'll be difficult for the Kashmiris to resist anymore.[126][125] Yousuf held talks with the envoys and after a whole night of discussion was convinced that further resistance would be useless and after cheering up the inhabitants and soldiers in various villages and posts, left his camp with a few horsemen to the Mughal camp on 14 February 1586.[127][128] Betrayed by their ruler, the Kashmiris appointed his son Yakub instead of him. They continued their resistance under him.[129][130]

Even though the Sultan held the highest order of the Sultanate with executive, legislative and judicial powers in his hand, he still formed a central government to run his Sultanate effectively.[141] Yousuf thus formed a council (Majlīs e Wūzra) of his most trusted ministers and appointed them accordingly.[62]

• ︎Wazīr i Azam (Prime Minister) was the highest official in the state and was also responsible for the civil administration. He was the constant advisor to the Sultan.[142] The Wazīr i Azam during Yousuf's reign were granted with excellent and sovereign executive and judicial powers and even led expeditions under the Sultan's orders.[62]
• ︎Dīwan i Kul (Finance Minister) was a minister of the Sultan's council who held the economical, revenue and financial powers of the Sultanate.[143] There were many Diwan e Kul under Yousuf's reign who were appointed by Yousuf himself.
• Qāzī'l-Quzāt or the Qāzī of Srinagar (Minister of Religious and Judicial Affairs) was responsible for the religious harmony between the Muslims and the non Muslims.[144] As Kashmiriyat prevailed over the Kashmiris at that time, Qāzī'l-Quzāt played a big role to settle quarrels between the Kashmiri Pandits and the Kashmiri Muslims. Qāzī'l-Quzāt was also in charge of the judicial matters on personal and land disputes.[145]
• Mir Bakhshī or Sipahsālār (Military Commander) was the commander of the military department and led the Sultan's army into foreign invasion or civil wars.[146]
• Amīr i Dar (Lord Chamberlain) had the responsibility to organise royal meetings and also made arrangements for important celebrations in the court.[147]
• Akhūrbek (Chief Master of Horse) was an important office granted to an officer of the Royal Stable. He controlled the Royal Stable and was obliged to take care of the Royal Horses.[146]
• Khazānchī (Lord Treasurer) functioned as the head of the Sultan's treasury, which includes the capital of taxation and management.[148]

Different taxation and duties have been imposed on many occasions throughout the Sultanate. Jizya (Head Tax) was realized from the non Muslims by many Sultans but Yousuf in his tenure, demolished the tax to relieve the non Muslims.[149] Zakāt (Poor Tax) was deposited from every Muslim of the working class or above.[150] 2.5% of their annual income was subtracted and added to the Royal Treasury which was later distributed in the poor and the lower class.[151] It was also given to travellers and students and was spent in providing food and shelter to the needy.[152] Kharaj and Ushr were land taxes.[153] The latter from non Muslims while the former was extracted from the Muslims.[154] Except for these, no other taxes are allowed to be imposed on the public as per the Sharia Law. Still, custom duties were taken from the subjects which came under the pretext of Zakāt.[155] Both the Muslim and Hindu merchants had to pay the custom duty tax. Yousuf also abolished taxes on artisans, cows and gardens and the Zakāt on hanjis (boatmen).[149]

Yousuf held a moderate policy towards his subjects. Even though Yousuf was an Orthodox Shia, he deeply cared for his Sunni and Nurbakhshiya subjects. The Kashmiri Pandits were also given special status and high posts in Yousuf's government.[156] The lower class were benefited with various reliefs whether on taxes or duties. Other than the civil policies, Yousuf also focused on having a conservative foreign policy. He gave the hill states of Jammu much importance especially Kishtwar by marrying his son Yakub to the daughter of the Raja of Kishtwar.[157] Although the Baltis under Ryalfo Ali Sher Khan Anchan and Ladakhis under Gyalpo Tsewang Namgyal never established peace ties with the Kashmiris, Yousuf was eager to solve the internal disputes between both of them.[158] Yousuf most probably also had his ambassadors sent to various Indian states like Sindh ruled by Tarkhans (Muhammad Baqi Tarkhan), Kalat ruled by Qambranis (Malook Khan Qambrani), Mewar ruled by Sisodias (Pratap Singh) and Marwar ruled by Rathores (Udai Singh) just like his predecessors especially Zain ul Abidin. Yousuf sent precious gifts and presents to the Mughal Emperor Akbar and treated his ambassadors with kindness.[86]