Advanced maternal age

Advanced maternal age, in a broad sense, is the instance of a woman being of an older age at a stage of reproduction, although there are various definitions of specific age and stage of reproduction.[1] The variability in definitions is in part explained by the effects of increasing age occurring as a continuum rather than as a threshold effect.[1]

For effects associated with father's age, see Paternal age effect.

In Western, Northern, and Southern Europe, first-time mothers are on average 27 to 32 years old,[2] up from 23 to 25 years at the start of the 1970s. In a number of European countries (Spain), the mean age of women at first childbirth has crossed the 30 year threshold.[3] This process is not restricted to Europe. Asia, Japan and the United States are all seeing average age at first birth on the rise, and increasingly the process is spreading to countries in the developing world such as China, Turkey and Iran. In the U.S., the average age of first childbirth was 26.9 in 2018.[4]

Advanced maternal age is associated with adverse reproductive effects such as increased risk of infertility,[5] and that the children have chromosomal abnormalities.[6] The corresponding paternal age effect is less pronounced.[7][8]

History

Having children later was not exceptional in the past, when families were larger and women often continued bearing children until the end of their reproductive age. What is so radical about this recent transformation is that it is the age at which women give birth to their first child, which is becoming comparatively high, leaving an ever more constricted window of biological opportunity for second and subsequent children, should they be desired. Unsurprisingly, high first-birth ages and high rates of birth postponement are associated with the arrival of low, and lowest-low fertility.[9]

This association has now become especially clear, since the postponement of first births in a number of countries has now continued unabated for more than three decades and has become one of the most prominent characteristics of fertility patterns in developed societies. A variety of authors (in particular, Lesthaeghe) have argued that fertility postponement constitutes the "hallmark" of what has become known as the “second demographic transition”.

Others have proposed that the postponement process itself constitutes a separate "third transition".[10] On this latter view, modern developed societies exhibit a kind of dual fertility pattern, with the majority of births being concentrated either among very young or increasingly older mothers. This is sometimes known as the "rectangularisation" of fertility patterns.

Examples

In the USA, the average age at which women bore her first child advanced from 21.4 years old in 1970[11] to 26.9 in 2018.[4]

The German Federal Institute for Population Research claimed in 2015 the percentage for women with an age of at least 35 giving birth to a child was 25.9%. This figure rose from 7.6% in 1981.[12]

Possible factors that influence childbearing age

There are many factors that may influence childbearing age in women, although they are mostly correlations without certain causations. For instance, older maternal age at first childbirth is associated with higher educational attainment and income.[13]

Two studies show that generous parental leave allowances in Britain encourage young motherhood and that parental-leave allowance reduces postponement in Sweden.[14]

Effects

Decreased fertility
Cumulative percentage and average age for women reaching subfertility, sterility, irregular menstruation and menopause.[15]
Main article: Age and female fertility

A woman's fertility peaks lasts during the twenties and first half of thirties, after which it starts to decline, with advanced maternal age causing an increased risk of female infertility.

According to Henri Leridon, PhD, an epidemiologist with the French Institute of Health and Medical Research, of women trying to get pregnant, without using fertility drugs or in vitro fertilization:[5]

  • At age 30
    • 75% will have a conception ending in a live birth within one year
    • 91% will have a conception ending in a live birth within four years.
  • At age 35
    • 66% will have a conception ending in a live birth within one year
    • 84% will have a conception ending in a live birth within four years.
  • At age 40
    • 44% will have a conception ending in a live birth within one year
    • 64% will have a conception ending in a live birth within four years.[5]

Risk of birth defects
The risk of having a Down syndrome pregnancy in relation to a mother's age.

A woman's risk of having a baby with chromosomal abnormalities increases with her age. Down syndrome is the most common chromosomal birth defect, and a woman's risk of having a baby with Down syndrome is:[16][6]

  • At age 20, 1 in 2000
  • At age 24, 1 in 1300
  • At age 25, 1 in 1200
  • At age 29, 1 in 950
  • At age 30, 1 in 900
  • At age 34, 1 in 450
  • At age 35, 1 in 350
  • At age 39, 1 in 150
  • At age 40, 1 in 100
  • At age 44, 1 in 40
  • At age 45, 1 in 30
  • At age 49, 1 in 10

Other effects

Advanced maternal age is associated with adverse outcomes in the perinatal period, which may be caused by detrimental effects on decidual and placental development.[17]

The risk of the mother dying before the child becomes an adult increases by more advanced maternal age, such as can be demonstrated by the following data from France in 2007:[18]

Maternal age at childbirth 202530354045
Risk of mother not surviving until child's 18th birthday (in %)[18] 0.61.01.62.63.85.5

The above table is not to be confused with maternal mortality.

Advanced maternal age continues to be associated with a range of adverse pregnancy outcomes including low birth weight, pre-term birth, stillbirth, unexplained fetal death, and increased rates of Caesarean section. However, over time, improvements in (and improvements in access to) medical services and social resources have decreased the negative association between older maternal age and low birth weight.[19]

On the other hand, advanced maternal age is associated with a more stable family environment, higher socio-economic position, higher income and better living conditions, as well as better parenting practices,[18] (including better disciplinary methods[20]). A qualitative study on couples in the United States who used in-vitro fertilization to conceive their first child when the woman was aged 40 or older at the time of delivery found that 72% of the women and 57% of the men believed that they had enhanced emotional preparedness for parenting which benefitted both their children and themselves.[21] In quantitative studies, mother’s older age at first birth has been associated with increases in children’s psychiatric health,[22] language skills,[22] cognitive ability,[23] and fewer social and emotional difficulties.[20] Further, a study in the United Kingdom showed that older maternal age at first birth was associated with fewer hospital admissions and fewer unintentional injuries for children up to age 5 and a greater likelihood of having had all of their immunizations by 9 months of age– all outcomes used as indicators of child wellbeing in reports from the World Health Organisation.[24] Finally, although older maternal age doesn’t necessarily imply older paternal age, researchers have suggested links between older paternal age and improved child outcomes, including increased IQ and educational attainment[25] and increased telomeric length, which is associated with greater longevity.[26] However, it is more or less uncertain whether these entities are effects of advanced maternal age, are contributors to advanced maternal age, or common effects of a certain state such as personality type.

Changes in interpregnancy interval

Kalberer et al.[27] have shown that despite the older maternal age at birth of the first child, the time span between the birth of the first and the second child (= interpregnancy interval) decreased over the last decades. If purely biological factors were at work, it could be argued that interpregnancy interval should have increased, as fertility declines with age, which would make it harder for the woman to get a second child after postponed birth of the first one. This not being the case shows that sociologic factors (see above) prime over biological factors in determining interpregnancy interval.

With technology developments cases of post-menopausal pregnancies have occurred, and there are several known cases of older women carrying a pregnancy to term, usually with in vitro fertilization of a donor egg. A 61-year-old Brazilian woman, aided by the implantation of a donor egg, gave birth to twins in October 2012.[28][29]

Ovarian aging

As women age, they experience a decline in reproductive performance leading to menopause.[30] This decline is tied to a decline in the number of ovarian follicles. Although about 1 million oocytes are present at birth in the human ovary, only about 500 (about 0.05%) of these ovulate, and the rest do not (ovarian follicle atresia). The decline in ovarian reserve appears to occur at a constantly increasing rate with age,[31] and leads to nearly complete exhaustion of the reserve by about age 51. As ovarian reserve and fertility decline with age, there is also a parallel increase in pregnancy failure and meiotic errors resulting in chromosomally abnormal conceptions.

Titus et al.[32] have proposed an explanation for the decline in ovarian reserve with age. They showed that as women age, double-strand breaks accumulate in the DNA of their primordial follicles. Primordial follicles are immature primary oocytes surrounded by a single layer of granulosa cells. An enzyme system is present in oocytes that normally accurately repairs DNA double-strand breaks. This repair system is referred to as homologous recombinational repair, and it is especially active during meiosis. Meiosis is the general process by which germ cells are formed in eukaryotes, and it appears to be an adaptation for efficiently removing damages in germ line DNA by homologous recombinational repair (see Origin and function of meiosis). Human primary oocytes are present at an intermediate stage of meiosis, that is prophase I (see Oogenesis). Titus et al.[32] also showed that expression of four key DNA repair genes that are necessary for homologous recombinational repair (BRCA1, MRE11, Rad51 and ATM) decline in oocytes with age. This age-related decline in ability to repair double-strand damages can account for the accumulation of these damages, which then likely contributes to the decline in ovarian reserve.

Women with an inherited mutation in the DNA repair gene BRCA1 undergo menopause prematurely,[33] suggesting that naturally occurring DNA damages in oocytes are repaired less efficiently in these women, and this inefficiency leads to early reproductive failure. Genomic data from about 70,000 women were analyzed to identify protein-coding variation associated with age at natural menopause.[34] Pathway analyses identified a major association with DNA damage response genes, particularly those expressed during meiosis and including a common coding variant in the BRCA1 gene.

See also

References

Citations
  1. Effect of advanced age on fertility and pregnancy in women Archived 19 June 2016 at the Wayback Machine at UpToDate. Author: Ruth C Fretts. Section Editor: Louise Wilkins-Haug. Deputy Editor: Vanessa A Barss. This topic last updated: 3 December 2012.
  2. "¿A qué edad tienen las madres su primer hijo?".
  3. "SF2.3: Mean age of mothers at first childbirth" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 December 2014. Retrieved 27 May 2014.
  4. "Births and Natality". Archived from the original on 12 November 2019. Retrieved 8 September 2017.
  5. Leridon, H. (1 July 2004). "Can assisted reproduction technology compensate for the natural decline in fertility with age? A model assessment". Human Reproduction. 19 (7): 1548–1553. doi:10.1093/humrep/deh304. PMID 15205397.
  6. Morris, J.K.; Mutton, D.E.; Alberman, E. (March 2002). "Revised estimates of the maternal age specific live birth prevalence of Down's syndrome". Journal of Medical Screening. 9 (1): 2–6. doi:10.1136/jms.9.1.2. PMID 11943789.
  7. Tournaye, Herman (June 2009). "Male Reproductive Ageing". In Bewley, Susan; Ledger, William; Nikolaou, Dimitrios (eds.). Reproductive Ageing. Cambridge University Press. pp. 95–104. ISBN 978-1-906985-13-4. Archived from the original on 4 November 2020. Retrieved 24 October 2020.
  8. Kidd, Sharon A; Eskenazi, Brenda; Wyrobek, Andrew J (February 2001). "Effects of male age on semen quality and fertility: a review of the literature". Fertility and Sterility. 75 (2): 237–248. doi:10.1016/s0015-0282(00)01679-4. PMID 11172821.
  9. "U.S. Women More Likely to Have Children Than a Decade Ago". Pew Research Center’s Social & Demographic Trends Project. 18 January 2018. Retrieved 29 October 2020.
  10. Kohler, Hans-Peter; Billari, Francesco C.; Ortega, Jose Antonio (December 2002). "The Emergence of Lowest-Low Fertility in Europe During the 1990s". Population and Development Review. 28 (4): 641–680. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4457.2002.00641.x.
  11. Mathews, TJ. "Delayed Childbearing: More Women Are Having Their First Child Later in Life" (PDF). 2009. CDC. Archived (PDF) from the original on 25 November 2017. Retrieved 26 August 2013.
  12. "Jedes vierte Neugeborene hat eine Mutter über 34 Jahre" [Every fourth newborn has a mother over 34 years of age] (PDF) (in German). Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 December 2017. Retrieved 20 December 2017.
  13. Shadyab, Aladdin H.; Gass, Margery L. S.; Stefanick, Marcia L.; Waring, Molly E.; Macera, Caroline A.; Gallo, Linda C.; Shaffer, Richard A.; Jain, Sonia; LaCroix, Andrea Z. (January 2017). "Maternal Age at Childbirth and Parity as Predictors of Longevity Among Women in the United States: The Women's Health Initiative". American Journal of Public Health. 107 (1): 113–119. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2016.303503. PMC 5308150. PMID 27854529.
  14. Balbo, Nicoletta; Billari, Francesco C.; Mills, Melinda (February 2013). "Fertility in Advanced Societies: A Review of Research". European Journal of Population. 29 (1): 1–38. doi:10.1007/s10680-012-9277-y. PMC 3576563. PMID 23440941.
  15. te Velde, E. R.; Pearson, PL (1 March 2002). "The variability of female reproductive ageing". Human Reproduction Update. 8 (2): 141–154. doi:10.1093/humupd/8.2.141. PMID 12099629.
  16. National Syndrome Down Society
  17. Nelson, S.M.; Telfer, E.E.; Anderson, R.A. (1 January 2013). "The ageing ovary and uterus: new biological insights". Human Reproduction Update. 19 (1): 67–83. doi:10.1093/humupd/dms043. PMC 3508627. PMID 23103636.
  18. Schmidt, L.; Sobotka, T.; Bentzen, J. G.; Nyboe Andersen, A.; ESHRE Reproduction and Society Task Force (1 January 2012). "Demographic and medical consequences of the postponement of parenthood". Human Reproduction Update. 18 (1): 29–43. doi:10.1093/humupd/dmr040. PMID 21989171.
  19. Goisis, Alice; Schneider, Daniel C.; Myrskylä, Mikko (2 September 2018). "Secular changes in the association between advanced maternal age and the risk of low birth weight: A cross-cohort comparison in the UK". Population Studies. 72 (3): 381–397. doi:10.1080/00324728.2018.1442584. PMID 29582702. S2CID 2977607.
  20. Trillingsgaard, Tea; Sommer, Dion (4 March 2018). "Associations between older maternal age, use of sanctions, and children's socio-emotional development through 7, 11, and 15 years" (PDF). European Journal of Developmental Psychology. 15 (2): 141–155. doi:10.1080/17405629.2016.1266248. S2CID 53061283. Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 July 2018. Retrieved 19 July 2019.
  21. Mac Dougall, K.; Beyene, Y.; Nachtigall, R. D. (1 April 2012). "'Inconvenient biology:' advantages and disadvantages of first-time parenting after age 40 using in vitro fertilization". Human Reproduction. 27 (4): 1058–1065. doi:10.1093/humrep/des007. PMC 3303492. PMID 22333985.
  22. Goisis, A. (2 September 2015). "How Are Children of Older Mothers Doing? Evidence from the United Kingdom" (PDF). Biodemography and Social Biology. 61 (3): 231–251. doi:10.1080/19485565.2014.1001887. PMID 26652679. S2CID 10071445. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 July 2018. Retrieved 19 July 2019.
  23. Goisis, Alice; Schneider, Daniel C; Myrskylä, Mikko (1 June 2017). "The reversing association between advanced maternal age and child cognitive ability: evidence from three UK birth cohorts". International Journal of Epidemiology. 46 (3): 850–859. doi:10.1093/ije/dyw354. PMC 5837600. PMID 28177512.
  24. Sutcliffe, A. G.; Barnes, J.; Belsky, J.; Gardiner, J.; Melhuish, E. (21 August 2012). "The health and development of children born to older mothers in the United Kingdom: observational study using longitudinal cohort data". BMJ. 345 (aug21 1): e5116. doi:10.1136/bmj.e5116. PMC 3424227. PMID 22915663.
  25. Janecka, M; Rijsdijk, F; Rai, D; Modabbernia, A; Reichenberg, A (June 2017). "Advantageous developmental outcomes of advancing paternal age". Translational Psychiatry. 7 (6): e1156. doi:10.1038/tp.2017.125. PMC 5537646. PMID 28632201.
  26. Eisenberg, D. T. A.; Hayes, M. G.; Kuzawa, C. W. (26 June 2012). "Delayed paternal age of reproduction in humans is associated with longer telomeres across two generations of descendants". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 109 (26): 10251–10256. Bibcode:2012PNAS..10910251E. doi:10.1073/pnas.1202092109. PMC 3387085. PMID 22689985.
  27. Kalberer, Urs; Baud, David; Fontanet, Arnaud; Hohlfeld, Patrick; de Ziegler, Dominique (December 2009). "Birth records from Swiss married couples analyzed over the past 35 years reveal an aging of first-time mothers by 5.1 years while the interpregnancy interval has shortened" (PDF). Fertility and Sterility. 92 (6): 2072–2073. doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2009.05.078. PMID 19608170. Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 July 2018. Retrieved 19 July 2019.
  28. "Woman, 61, pregnant". The Sydney Morning Herald. 27 September 2011. Archived from the original on 27 April 2016. Retrieved 8 February 2013.
  29. Moreno, Carolina (26 October 2012). "LOOK: 61 Year-Old Woman Gives Birth To Twins". HuffPost. Archived from the original on 3 August 2016. Retrieved 13 October 2017.
  30. "Menopause". medlineplus.gov. Archived from the original on 16 October 2020. Retrieved 29 October 2020.
  31. Hansen KR, Knowlton NS, Thyer AC, Charleston JS, Soules MR, Klein NA (2008). "A new model of reproductive aging: the decline in ovarian non-growing follicle number from birth to menopause". Hum. Reprod. 23 (3): 699–708. doi:10.1093/humrep/dem408. PMID 18192670.
  32. Titus S, Li F, Stobezki R, Akula K, Unsal E, Jeong K, Dickler M, Robson M, Moy F, Goswami S, Oktay K (2013). "Impairment of BRCA1-related DNA double-strand break repair leads to ovarian aging in mice and humans". Sci Transl Med. 5 (172): 172ra21. doi:10.1126/scitranslmed.3004925. PMC 5130338. PMID 23408054.
  33. Rzepka-Górska I, Tarnowski B, Chudecka-Głaz A, Górski B, Zielińska D, Tołoczko-Grabarek A (2006). "Premature menopause in patients with BRCA1 gene mutation". Breast Cancer Res. Treat. 100 (1): 59–63. doi:10.1007/s10549-006-9220-1. PMID 16773440. S2CID 19572648.
  34. Day FR, Ruth KS, Thompson DJ, et al. (2015). "Large-scale genomic analyses link reproductive aging to hypothalamic signaling, breast cancer susceptibility and BRCA1-mediated DNA repair". Nat. Genet. 47 (11): 1294–303. doi:10.1038/ng.3412. PMC 4661791. PMID 26414677.

General sources

Further reading
  • Charlemagne, 9 February 2006, "The Fertility Bust", The Economist
  • Gavrilov, L. A.; Gavrilova, N. S. (1997). "Parental age at conception and offspring longevity". Reviews in Clinical Gerontology. 7: 5–12. doi:10.1017/S0959259897000026.
  • Gavrilov, L. A.; Gavrilova, N. S. (2000). "Human longevity and parental age at conception". In Robine, J.-M.; Kirkwood, T. B. L.; Allard, M. (eds.). Sex and Longevity: Sexuality, Gender, Reproduction, Parenthood. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag. pp. 7–31. ISBN 3-540-67740-2.
  • Hofmeister, Heather; Mills, Melinda; Blossfeld, Hans-Peter (2006). "Globalization, Uncertainty and Women's Mid-Career Life Courses: A Theoretical Framework". In Blossfeld, Hans-Peter; Hofmeister, Heather (eds.). Globalization, uncertainty and women's careers : an international comparison. Cheltenham. pp. 3–31. ISBN 1-84542-664-9.
  • Kohler, Hans-Peter; Billari, Francesco C.; Ortega, José Antonio (2006). "Low fertility in Europe: Causes, implications and policy options". In Harris, Fred R. (ed.). The Baby Bust: Who Will Do the Work? who Will Pay the Taxes?. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 48–109. ISBN 978-0-7425-3855-9.
  • Lesthaeghe, R.; Neels, K. (2002). "From the first to the second demographic transition: An interpretation of the spatial continuity of demographic innovation in France, Belgium and Switzerland". European Journal of Population. 18 (4): 325–360. doi:10.1023/A:1021125800070. S2CID 878879.
  • Sobotka, Tomás (2004). Postponement of childbearing and low fertility in Europe (Thesis). hdl:11370/7fe0743c-9766-4ae9-befe-3edae1006c6e.
This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.