Omega-6 fatty acid
Omega-6 fatty acids (also referred to as ω-6 fatty acids or n-6 fatty acids) are a family of polyunsaturated fatty acids that have in common a final carbon-carbon double bond in the n-6 position, that is, the sixth bond, counting from the methyl end.[1]
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The evening primrose flower (O. biennis) produces an oil containing a high content of γ-linolenic acid, a type of omega-6 fatty acid.
Health effects
One review found that an increased intake of omega‐6 fatty acids has been shown to reduce total serum cholesterol and may reduce myocardial infarction. The same review found no significant change in LDL cholesterol and triglycerides.[2] A 2021 review found that omega 6 supplements do not affect the risk of CVD morbidity and mortality.[3]
Dietary sources
Dietary sources of omega-6 fatty acids include:[4]
- poultry
- eggs
- nuts
- hulled sesame seeds
- cereals
- durum wheat
- whole-grain breads
- pumpkin seeds
Vegetable oils
Vegetable oils are a major source of omega-6 linoleic acid. Worldwide, more than 100 million metric tons of vegetable oils are extracted annually from palm fruits, soybean seeds, rape seeds, and sunflower seeds, providing more than 32 million metric tons of omega-6 linoleic acid and 4 million metric tons of omega-3 alpha-linolenic acid.[5][6]
| The nutritional values are expressed as percent (%) by mass of total fat. | |||||||||
| Type | Processing treatment[9] | Saturated fatty acids | Monounsaturated fatty acids | Polyunsaturated fatty acids | Smoke point | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Total[7] | Oleic acid (ω-9) | Total[7] | α-Linolenic acid (ω-3) | Linoleic acid (ω-6) | ω-6:3 ratio | ||||
| Avocado[10] | 11.6 | 70.6 | 52–66[11] | 13.5 | 1 | 12.5 | 12.5:1 | 250 °C (482 °F)[12] | |
| Brazil nut[13] | 24.8 | 32.7 | 31.3 | 42.0 | 0.1 | 41.9 | 419:1 | 208 °C (406 °F)[14] | |
| Canola[15] | 7.4 | 63.3 | 61.8 | 28.1 | 9.1 | 18.6 | 2:1 | 238 °C (460 °F)[14] | |
| Coconut[16] | 82.5 | 6.3 | 6 | 1.7 | 175 °C (347 °F)[14] | ||||
| Corn[17] | 12.9 | 27.6 | 27.3 | 54.7 | 1 | 58 | 58:1 | 232 °C (450 °F)[18] | |
| Cottonseed[19] | 25.9 | 17.8 | 19 | 51.9 | 1 | 54 | 54:1 | 216 °C (420 °F)[18] | |
| Flaxseed/linseed[20] | 9.0 | 18.4 | 18 | 67.8 | 53 | 13 | 0.2:1 | 107 °C (225 °F) | |
| Grape seed | 10.5 | 14.3 | 14.3 | 74.7 | – | 74.7 | very high | 216 °C (421 °F)[21] | |
| Hemp seed[22] | 7.0 | 9.0 | 9.0 | 82.0 | 22.0 | 54.0 | 2.5:1 | 166 °C (330 °F)[23] | |
| Olive[24] | 13.8 | 73.0 | 71.3 | 10.5 | 0.7 | 9.8 | 14:1 | 193 °C (380 °F)[14] | |
| Palm[25] | 49.3 | 37.0 | 40 | 9.3 | 0.2 | 9.1 | 45.5:1 | 235 °C (455 °F) | |
| Peanut[26] | 16.2 | 57.1 | 55.4 | 19.9 | 0.318 | 19.6 | 61.6:1 | 232 °C (450 °F)[18] | |
| Rice bran oil | 25 | 38.4 | 38.4 | 36.6 | 2.2 | 34.4[27] | 15.6 | 232 °C (450 °F)[28] | |
| High-oleic safflower oil[29] | 7.5 | 75.2 | 75.2 | 12.8 | 0 | 12.8 | very high | 212 °C (414 °F)[14] | |
| Sesame[30] | 14.2 | 39.7 | 39.3 | 41.7 | 0.3 | 41.3 | 138:1 | ||
| Soybean[31] | partially hydrogenated | 14.9 | 43.0 | 42.5 | 37.6 | 2.6 | 34.9 | 13.4:1 | |
| Soybean[32] | 15.6 | 22.8 | 22.6 | 57.7 | 7 | 51 | 7.3:1 | 238 °C (460 °F)[18] | |
| Walnut oil[33] | unrefined | 9.1 | 22.8 | 22.2 | 63.3 | 10.4 | 52.9 | 5:1 | 160 °C (320 °F)[34] |
| Sunflower[35] | 8.99 | 63.4 | 62.9 | 20.7 | 0.16 | 20.5 | 128:1 | 227 °C (440 °F)[18] | |
| Cottonseed[36] | hydrogenated | 93.6 | 1.5 | 0.6 | 0.2 | 0.3 | 1.5:1 | ||
| Palm[37] | hydrogenated | 88.2 | 5.7 | 0 | |||||
List of omega-6 fatty acids
The chemical structure of linoleic acid, a common omega-6 fatty acid found in many nuts, seeds, and vegetable oils.
| Common name | Lipid name | Chemical name |
|---|---|---|
| Linoleic acid (LA) | 18:2 (n−6) | all-cis-9,12-octadecadienoic acid |
| Gamma-linolenic acid (GLA) | 18:3 (n−6) | all-cis-6,9,12-octadecatrienoic acid |
| Calendic acid | 18:3 (n−6) | 8E,10E,12Z-octadecatrienoic acid |
| Eicosadienoic acid | 20:2 (n−6) | all-cis-11,14-eicosadienoic acid |
| Dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid (DGLA) | 20:3 (n−6) | all-cis-8,11,14-eicosatrienoic acid |
| Arachidonic acid (AA, ARA) | 20:4 (n−6) | all-cis-5,8,11,14-eicosatetraenoic acid |
| Docosadienoic acid | 22:2 (n−6) | all-cis-13,16-docosadienoic acid |
| Adrenic acid | 22:4 (n−6) | all-cis-7,10,13,16-docosatetraenoic acid |
| Osbond acid | 22:5 (n−6) | all-cis-4,7,10,13,16-docosapentaenoic acid |
| Tetracosatetraenoic acid | 24:4 (n−6) | all-cis-9,12,15,18-tetracosatetraenoic acid |
| Tetracosapentaenoic acid | 24:5 (n−6) | all-cis-6,9,12,15,18-tetracosapentaenoic acid |
The melting point of the fatty acids increases as the number of carbons in the chain increases.[38]
See also
- Cattle feeding
- Essential fatty acid interactions
- Essential nutrients
- Inflammation
- Linolenic acid
- Lipid peroxidation
- Olive oil regulation and adulteration
- Omega-3 fatty acid
- Omega-7 fatty acid
- Omega-9 fatty acid
- Ratio of fatty acids in different foods
- Wheat germ oil
References
- Chow, Ching Kuang (2001). Fatty Acids in Foods and Their Health Implications. New York: Routledge Publishing. OCLC 25508943.
- Hooper L, Al‐Khudairy L, Abdelhamid AS, Rees K, Brainard JS, Brown TJ, Ajabnoor SM, O'Brien AT, Winstanley LE, Donaldson DH, Song F, Deane KHO (2018). "Omega‐6 fats for the primary and secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 11 (CD011094): CD011094. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD011094.pub4. PMC 6516799. PMID 30488422.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - Mazidi, M., Shekoohi, N., Katsiki, N., & Banach, M. (2021). "Omega-6 fatty acids and the risk of cardiovascular disease: insights from a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials and a Mendelian randomization study". Archives of Medical Science. 18 (2): 466–479. doi:10.5114/aoms/136070. PMC 8924827. PMID 35316920.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - "Food sources of total omega 6 fatty acids". Archived from the original on 2011-10-07. Retrieved 2011-09-04.
- Gunstone, Frank (December 2007). "Market update: Palm oil". International News on Fats, Oils and Related Materials. 18 (12): 835–36. Archived from the original on 2013-04-03.
- January 2009 (PDF). Oilseeds: World Market and Trade. Vol. FOP 1-09. USDA. 2009-01-12. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-03-09. Retrieved 2019-08-09., Table 03: Major Vegetable Oils: World Supply and Distribution at Oilseeds: World Markets and Trade Monthly Circular Archived 2010-10-18 at the Wayback Machine
- "US National Nutrient Database, Release 28". United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. All values in this table are from this database unless otherwise cited or when italicized as the simple arithmetic sum of other component columns.
- "Fats and fatty acids contents per 100 g (click for "more details"). Example: Avocado oil (user can search for other oils)". Nutritiondata.com, Conde Nast for the USDA National Nutrient Database, Standard Release 21. 2014. Retrieved 7 September 2017. Values from Nutritiondata.com (SR 21) may need to be reconciled with most recent release from the USDA SR 28 as of Sept 2017.
- "USDA Specifications for Vegetable Oil Margarine Effective August 28, 1996" (PDF).
- "Avocado oil, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
- Feramuz Ozdemir; Ayhan Topuz (May 2003). "Changes in dry matter, oil content and fatty acids composition of avocado during harvesting time and post-harvesting ripening period" (PDF). Elsevier. Retrieved 15 January 2020.
- Marie Wong; Cecilia Requejo-Jackman; Allan Woolf (April 2010). "What is unrefined, extra virgin cold-pressed avocado oil?". Aocs.org. The American Oil Chemists’ Society. Retrieved 26 December 2019.
- "Brazil nut oil, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
- Katragadda, H. R.; Fullana, A. S.; Sidhu, S.; Carbonell-Barrachina, Á. A. (2010). "Emissions of volatile aldehydes from heated cooking oils". Food Chemistry. 120: 59–65. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2009.09.070.
- "Canola oil, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
- "Coconut oil, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
- "Corn oil, industrial and retail, all purpose salad or cooking, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
- Wolke, Robert L. (May 16, 2007). "Where There's Smoke, There's a Fryer". The Washington Post. Retrieved March 5, 2011.
- "Cottonseed oil, salad or cooking, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
- "Linseed/Flaxseed oil, cold pressed, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
- Garavaglia J, Markoski MM, Oliveira A, Marcadenti A (2016). "Grape Seed Oil Compounds: Biological and Chemical Actions for Health". Nutrition and Metabolic Insights. 9: 59–64. doi:10.4137/NMI.S32910. PMC 4988453. PMID 27559299.
- Callaway J, Schwab U, Harvima I, Halonen P, Mykkänen O, Hyvönen P, Järvinen T (April 2005). "Efficacy of dietary hempseed oil in patients with atopic dermatitis". The Journal of Dermatological Treatment. 16 (2): 87–94. doi:10.1080/09546630510035832. PMID 16019622. S2CID 18445488.
- "Smoke points of oils" (PDF).
- "Olive oil, salad or cooking, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
- "Palm oil, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
- "FoodData Central". fdc.nal.usda.gov.
- Orthoefer, F. T. (2005). "Chapter 10: Rice Bran Oil". In Shahidi, F. (ed.). Bailey's Industrial Oil and Fat Products. Vol. 2 (6 ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p. 465. doi:10.1002/047167849X. ISBN 978-0-471-38552-3.
- "Rice bran oil". RITO Partnership. Retrieved 22 January 2021.
- "Safflower oil, salad or cooking, high oleic, primary commerce, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
- "Oil, sesame, salad or cooking". FoodData Central. fdc.nal.usda.gov.
- "Soybean oil, salad or cooking, (partially hydrogenated), fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
- "Soybean oil, salad or cooking, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
- "Walnut oil, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, United States Department of Agriculture.
- "Smoke Point of Oils". Baseline of Health. Jonbarron.org.
- "FoodData Central". fdc.nal.usda.gov.
- "Cottonseed oil, industrial, fully hydrogenated, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
- "Palm oil, industrial, fully hydrogenated, filling fat, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
- "Biochemical Properties of Lipids". The Medical Biochemistry Page. 2020-04-30. Retrieved 2022-05-11.
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