Orthopedic pathology

Symptoms that patients may experience when bone disorders form can include bone deformities, hip pain, overgrowing of bone in an individual's skull which can result in headaches and a loss of hearing, pain and numbness in arm or legs if the spine is affected and an overall weakness in the body particularly in the hip and knee joints.[6]

Individuals that are diagnosed with bone disorders need to pay attention to secondary causes as medications and the presence of other disorders can also have major effects. Drugs that can prevent bone loss are called antiresorptives. They can slow the degradation of the skeletal system and decrease the risk of subsequent bone injuries fractures. They can help in repairing the individual's bone strength. In addition to antiresorptives, anabolic therapy can also promote the build up of bones and prevent prospective risks.[7] There are also drugs that can deteriorate bone mass. Glucocorticoid is produced naturally by the body itself in the form of cortisol, however it is known that high levels of this hormone both naturally and synthetically can result in a decreased ability for the body to form bone cells, instead amplifying the breaking down of bone minerals. This impacts the bone loss in an individual's body. Other medications that can affect the production of bone cells and enhance bone loss and fractures include breast cancer and prostate cancer drugs, anti-seizure drugs, blood pressure medication, heartburn drugs and diuretics.[8] There are also medical conditions such as neurological disorders, malabsorption, sex hormone deficiency, diabetes, kidney disease and hyperthyroidism that can influence bone disorders.[9]

The two most common forms of bone cancer are Ewing's sarcoma and osteosarcoma.[10] They are highly aggressive pediatric tumours. Ewing sarcoma form in bones or soft tissue, whereas osteosarcoma makes weakened bones at the end of longer ones.[11]

There are multiple other bone cancers that are more rare:

Chondrosarcoma is identified mainly through the production of cartilage from the cells. Depending on the type of chondrosarcoma, it ranges from a slow growth which is able to be removed,  to a rapid growth and uncontrollable spread to other parts of the body, known as metastasis.[12]

A Chordoma is another type of cancer that slowly grows into nearby bones and many soft tissues in the spine, ranging from the base of the skull to the tailbone. Chordomas have around a 40% metastasis rate and mainly spread to the lungs.[13]

(rare cases) soft-tissue sarcoma causes:

Undifferentiated pleomorphic sarcoma (UPS) is a form of soft tissue cancer, which mainly targets the arms and legs. It is undifferentiated as under a microscope, the tumour cells appear different to the body cells in which it develops, and is characterised as pleomorphic because it takes many different forms and sizes.[14]

Fibrosarcoma occurs in the fibrous cells that join muscles to bones, most commonly in the arms, legs and pelvis[15]

Sarcoma of Paget's disease of the bone occurs in people that already have Paget's disease, mainly aged above 70. It is very aggressive and difficult to control[16]

Common orthopaedic diseases include; arthritis, back/foot/hand/knee/neck/shoulder pains, osteoporosis, Paget's disease of the bone and soft-tissue injuries.[17]

Bone diseases include non-neoplastic disorders, which are diseases that are not caused by abnormal growths such as cancer. These consist of genetic diseases, osteoporosis, infections of the bone, and Paget's disease of bone.[18]

Neuromotor impairments refer to the conditions that are established at or before birth in the affected person, regarding damage or unnatural behaviors of the brain and spinal chord, or more generally, the Nervous system. The transmission of specific signals through Neurons by the brain to all parts of the body is hindered by neuromotor impairments, generally causing a range of problems regarding motion and movement of all parts of the body. Common effects are loss of limb functionality, urinary control, and the spinal alignment.

two examples of neuromotor impairments are Cerebral palsy and Spina bifida.[19]

Degenerative diseases are classified due to their nature of destroying Motor neurons, responsible for the movement of all muscle groups within the body. Common examples of degenerative diseases are Parkinson's disease and Muscular Dystrophy.[19]

Musculoskeletal disorders (or MSDs) are disorders that directly alter the movement and capabilities of the musculoskeletal system or movement of the body. This includes parts such as the muscles, nerves, ligaments, tendons, nerves, etc.[20] These disorders or diseases include Carpal tunnel syndrome, Tendonitis, tedndon/muscle/ligament strains and sprains, Spinal disc herniation, and more.[19]

Arthritis in pets (and humans) occurs when a joint is inflamed due to the deterioration of lubricants and soft tissue surrounding major joints such as the hips, knees, shoulder and elbows.

Osteoarthritis / Degenerative Joint Disease: This is the most common type of arthritis and is a continuous decay of cartilage, caused by friction within the joints through movement.

Septic arthritis / Inflammatory Joint Disease: Septic arthritis is brought upon by infection or an inherited compromised immune system and is seen in the build up of fluid within the joints and an inflammation of cartilage.

Rheumatoid arthritis / Polyarthritis: Polyarthritis is the result of the body's immune system attacking a joint, causing damage to cartilage and tissue.[26]

A physical test is conducted for signs of the following: Crepitus (grinding/cracking/grating/crunching etc. of joints), rough/deformed bones, Discomfort associated to swelling or tenderness, or Muscle atrophy (Decrease in muscle size).

If required, the following tests may be used;

Radiograph (x-ray) with the animal under Anesthesia and if necessary, a Radiocontrast agent (contrast dye) may be used in the joints before undergoing the test.

Force plate analysis, where a pressure plate on the floor reads the distribution of weight by the dog/cat to detect a favouring of one limb over the others.

Joint fluid aspiration, which is the physical removal of fluid around joints to confirm either degenerative or inflammatory arthritis[26][27]