Figure skating

As an Olympic sport, figure skating comprises the following disciplines:[17]

• Singles competitions for men and for women (previously referred to as "ladies" in ISU rulebooks until the 2021–22 season). Individual skaters perform jumps, spins, step sequences, spirals, and other elements in their programs.
• Pair skating teams, consisting of a woman and a man skating together. Pairs perform elements that are specific to the discipline such as: throw jumps, in which the man 'throws' the woman into a jump; lifts, in which the woman is held above the man's head in one of various grips and positions; pair spins, in which both skaters spin together about a common axis; death spirals; and other elements such as side-by-side jumps and spins in unison.
• Ice dance couples, consisting of a man and a woman skating together. In contrast to pair skating, ice dance focuses on intricate footwork performed in close dance holds, in time with the music. Ice dance lifts must not go above the shoulder, while throws and jumps are disallowed.

The four disciplines of men's singles, women's singles, pair skating, and ice dance, are also incorporated into a team event which appeared on the Olympic programme for the first time at the 2014 Winter Olympics.[18]

Synchronized Marigold IceUnity skating team performing a 3-spoke "wheel" element in 2005

Lifts performed by the Haydenettes, 26-time U.S. national synchro champions

• Synchronized skating (formerly known as "precision skating") is for mixed-gender groups of between twelve and twenty figure skaters. This discipline resembles a group form of ice dance, with additional emphasis on precise formations of the group as a whole and complex transitions between formations. The basic formations include wheels, blocks, lines, circles, and intersections. The close formations, and the need for the team to stay in unison, add to the difficulty of the footwork performed by the skaters in these elements. Formal proposals were put forward by the ISU to include synchronized skating in the 2022 Winter Olympics, but those efforts have been unsuccessful.[19][20]
• Ice theatre (also known as "Theatre on ice" or "Ballet on ice") is a form of group skating that is less structured than synchronized skating and allows the use of theatrical costuming and props.
• Four skating is a discipline in which a team of four skaters, consisting of two men and two women, perform singles and pairs elements in unison, as well as unique elements that involve all four skaters.
• Special figures is the tracing of elaborate original designs on the ice. This was a common discipline in the early days of figure skating (hence the name of the sport) and appeared once at the Olympics, in 1908.
• Adagio skating is a form of pair skating most commonly seen in ice shows, where the skaters perform many acrobatic lifts, but few or none of the other elements that are performed by competitive pair skaters.
• Acrobatic skating (also known as "Acrobatics on ice" or "Extreme skating") is a combination of circus arts, technical artistic gymnastics skills, and figure skating.

Jumps involve the skater leaping into the air and rotating rapidly to land after completing one or more rotations. There are many types of jumps, identified by the way the skater takes off and lands, as well as by the number of rotations that are completed.

Each jump receives a score according to its base value and grade of execution (GOE).[21] Quality of execution, technique, height, speed, flow and ice coverage are considered by the judges. An under-rotated jump (indicated by < ) is "missing rotation of more than 1⁄4, but less than 1⁄2 revolution" and receives 70% of the base value. A downgraded jump (indicated by <<) is "missing rotation of 1⁄2 revolution or more". A downgraded triple is treated as a double jump, while a downgraded double is treated as a single jump.

An edge violation occurs when a skater executes a jump on the incorrect edge. The hollow is a groove on the bottom of the blade which creates two distinct edges, inside and outside. The inside edge of the blade is on the side closest to the skater, the outside edge is on the side farthest from the skater, and a flat refers to skating on both edges at the same time, which is discouraged. An unclear edge or edge violation is indicated with an 'e' and reflected in the GOE according to the severity of the problem. Flutz and lip are the colloquial terms for a Lutz and flip jump with an edge violation.

In 1982, the ISU enacted a rule stating that a skater may perform each type of triple only once in a program, or twice if one of them is incorporated into a combination or sequence. For a set of jumps to be considered a combination, each jump must take off from the landing edge of the previous jump, with no steps, turns, or change of edge between jumps. Toe loops and loops are commonly performed as the second or third jump in a combination because they take off from the back outside edge of the landing foot, or skating leg. To perform a salchow or flip on the back end of a combination, a half loop (which is actually a full rotation, but lands on a back inside edge of the landing leg) may be used as a connecting jump. In contrast, jump sequences are sets of jumps that may be linked by non-listed jumps or hops.[23] Sequences are worth 80% of the combined value of the same jumps executed in combination.

A figure skater only needs to be able to jump in one direction, either clockwise or counter-clockwise. The vast majority of figure skaters prefer to rotate in a counter-clockwise direction when jumping. Thus, for clarity, all jumps will be described for a skater jumping counter-clockwise.

There are six jumps in figure skating that count as jump elements. All six are landed on one foot on the back outside edge (with counter-clockwise rotation, for single and multi-revolution jumps), but have different takeoffs, by which they may be distinguished. Jumps are divided into two different categories: toe jumps and edge jumps.

The number of rotations performed in the air determines whether the jump is a single, double, triple, or quadruple (commonly known as a "quad"). The simplest jump is a waltz jump, which can only be done in a half-leap and is not classified as a single, double, or triple jump. Senior-level male single skaters perform mostly triple and quadruple jumps in competition. The only quad not to have been accomplished by a skater in competition is the quadruple Axel, which involves four and a half rotations. This jump has been attempted in competition but has not been landed successfully. Triple jumps, other than the triple Axel, are commonly performed by female single skaters. It is rare for a female skater to land a quadruple jump, and very few female single skaters have been credited with quads in competition.

Some elite skaters can complete a jump in about one second, with 26 inches of height and 10 feet in distance. The takeoff speed of a jump can reach up to 15 mph. Prior to most jumps, a figure skater needs to skate backward to build power and speed.[24]

Toe jumps are launched by digging the toe pick of one skate into the ice, using it to vault into the air with the opposite leg. The main toe jumps are (in order of score value):[25]

1. Toe loop – the skater takes off backwards from the outside edge of the right (or left) foot, launching the jump using the opposite toe pick.
2. Flip (sometimes known as a toe salchow) – the skater takes off backwards from the inside edge of the left (or right) foot and assists the take-off using the opposite toe pick.
3. Lutz – similar to the flip, but the skater takes off from the backward outside edge of the left (or right) foot, launching the jump using the opposite toe pick.

All of the above descriptions assume a counter-clockwise direction of rotation, landing backwards on the outside edge of the right foot. (For clockwise rotation, the skater takes off using the alternative foot and lands backwards on the outside edge of the left foot.)

An Axel jump

Edge jumps use no toe assist, and include (in order of score value):

1. Salchow – the skater takes off backwards from the inside edge of the left (or right) foot, allowing the edge to come round, the opposite leg helps to launch the jump into the air.
2. Loop (also known as a Rittberger jump) – the skater takes off backwards from the outside edge of the right (or left) foot.
3. Axel – the skater takes off forwards from the outside edge of the left (or right) foot. As this is the only rotating jump to take off from a forward edge, it includes an extra half rotation.

Again, these descriptions assume a counter-clockwise direction of rotation, landing backwards on the outside edge of the right foot. (For clockwise rotation, the skater takes off using the alternative foot and always lands backwards on the outside edge of the left foot.)

Several other jumps are usually performed only as single jumps and in elite skating are used as transitional movements or highlights in step sequences. These include the half toe loop (ballet jump), half loop, half flip, walley jump, waltz jump, inside Axel, one-foot Axel, stag jump, and split jump. There are two kinds of split jump:

• Russian split, performed in a position that is similar to that of a straddle split
• ladies split, performed in the position of the more traditional split, facing the direction of the front leg

• 
  Ross Miner sets up for a jump.
• 
  Denis Ten sets up for a jump.
• 
  Kevin van der Perren rotates in the air.
• 
  Jamal Othman lands on the right back outside edge.

• 
  Pairs skaters Marissa Castelli and Simon Shnapir set up for a throw jump
• 
  A pair team after the woman has been thrown: Jessica Miller rotates in the air.
• 
  Anabelle Langlois lands after performing a throw jump with Cody Hay.

Spins are a required element in all four Olympic disciplines. There are three basic positions – upright, sit and camel – with numerous variations.

• Upright spin variations include layback, Biellmann, haircutter, layover layback, attitude, and pearl.
• Sit spin variations include pancake, broken leg, tuck behind, cannonball, flying, and clam.
• Camel spin variations include catch-foot, layover, flying, and donut.

Spins may be performed individually or in a spin sequence, combining different types of spin; a spin sequence is known as a "combination spin". During a spin, the skater rotates on the front rocker (sometimes called the "sweet spot" or "spin rocker"), which is the curved part of the blade that corresponds to the ball of the skater's foot, just behind the toe pick. A spin may be executed on the back rocker of the blade during a change of edge spin. For example, a back scratch spin will flip edges to a forward inside edge. This feature of a spin will change the level of a spin.

A figure skater only needs to be able to spin in one direction, either clockwise or counterclockwise. Most skaters favor a counter-clockwise direction of rotation when spinning (as in jumping), but some skaters prefer to spin in the clockwise direction. A small minority of skaters can spin in both directions. Spins may be performed on either foot. For skaters who rotate in a counter-clockwise direction, a spin on the left foot is called a forward spin, while a spin on the right foot is called a backspin. The opposite applies to skaters who rotate in a clockwise direction. When learning to spin, a skater will typically learn a forward spin first, then once that is mastered they will learn how to execute a backspin.

When performing some types of spin, an elite skater can complete on average six rotations per second, and up to 70 rotations in a single spin.[26] However, this is rarely seen in modern competitions because it would gain no extra points for the spin.

Spins are normally entered on the ice, but they can also be entered from a jump or sequence of jumps known as star jumps. Spins that are entered through a jump are calling flying spins; these include the flying camel, flying sit spin, death drop, and butterfly spin. Flying spins may go from a forward spin to a back spin and they can also be performed as part of a spin sequence (combination spin).

In pair skating, spins may be performed side by side with both partners doing the same spin or combination spin simultaneously. Additionally, in pairs and ice dance, there are pair spins and dance spins, during which both skaters rotate around the same axis while holding onto one another.

• 
  Camel spin
• 
  Sit spin
• 
  Upright spin
• 
  Pair camel spin
• 
  Pair spin with woman in layback and man in sit spin
• 
  Layback spin with catch-foot
• 
  Biellmann spin
• 
  Death drop

Pair skaters performing a one-arm overhead lift

Lifts are a required element in pair skating and ice dance.

Pair lifts are generally overhead. According to the current ISU rules for senior-level competition, the man must rotate more than once, but fewer than three-and-a-half times. In competitive pair skating, lifts must travel across the ice to be included in the technical elements score (TES); stationary lifts are included in choreography. Pair lifts are grouped by the holds involved.

Legal holds:

• Armpit holds are not generally used in elite senior competition.
• Waist holds
• Hand-to-hip holds
• Hand-to-hand lifts are divided into two types:
  • Press lifts
  • Lasso lifts, in order of increasing difficulty:[21]
    • Toe or step in lasso
    • Axel or backward lasso
    • Reverse lasso

The judges look at speed, ice coverage, the quality of the lady's position, position changes, and the man's stability and cleanness of turns throughout. Skaters may also raise their score by having a difficult entry such as in spiral or spread eagle position, a difficult exit, or other features such as stopping the rotation, turning a carry lift into rotational one, or reversing rotation (i.e. both clockwise and counter-clockwise directions). This gives the lifts a level. They can be from a base level to a level 4. The higher the level, the more points the skaters can receive.

Twist lifts are a form of pair lifts, where the lifted partner is thrown into the air, twists, and is caught by the lifted partner. The lady is caught by her waist in the air and lands on the backward outside edge. Some pairs include a split before rotating. This is credited as a difficult feature if each leg is separated by at least a 45° angle from the body axis and the legs are straight or almost straight. Scores are also affected by the height of the twist, turns, steps or other moves before the element, the lady holding her arms over her head, delayed rotation, etc. This element is also a leveled element.

Ice dancers are not allowed to lift their partners above their shoulders. Dance lifts are separated into short lifts and long lifts. There are many positions each partner can take to raise the difficulty of a lift. Each position must be held for at least three seconds to count and is permitted only once in a program.

Short lifts may last up to six seconds in competition on the senior level.

• Stationary lift – A lift performed "on the spot". The lifting partner does not move across the ice, but is allowed to rotate.
• Straight line lift – The lifting partner moves in a straight line across the ice. This lift may be performed on one foot or two.
• Curve lift – The lifting partner moves along a curve across the ice. This lift may be performed on one foot or two.
• Rotational lift – The lifting partner rotates in one direction while traveling across the ice.

Long lifts may last up to ten seconds in competition on the senior level.

• Reverse rotational lift – The lifting partner rotates in one direction, then switches and rotates in the other direction, while traveling across the ice.
• Serpentine lift – The lifting partner moves in a serpentine pattern across the ice.
• Combination lift – A lift combining two of the four short lifts. Each part of the lift must be fully established.

In both pairs and dance, lifts that go on longer than allowed receive deductions.

Along with other forms of skating, figure skating is one of the only human powered activities where travelling backwards is integral to the discipline. The ability to skate well backwards and forwards are considered to be equally important, as is the ability to transition well between the two.[27][28]

Step sequences are a required element in all four Olympic disciplines. The pattern can be straight line, circular, or serpentine. The step sequence consists of a combination of turns, steps, hops and edge changes. Additionally, steps and turns can be used as transitions between elements. The various turns, which skaters can incorporate into step sequences, include:

• 
  Three turns, so called because the blade turns into the curve of the edge or lobe to leave a tracing resembling the numeral "3".
• 
  Bracket turns, in which the blade is turned counter to the curve of the lobe, making a tracing resembling a bracket ("}").
• 
  Mohawks, the two-foot equivalents of three turns and brackets.
• 
  Rockers, one-foot turns that involve a change of lobe as well as of direction.
• 
  Counters, one-foot turns that involve a change of lobe as well as of direction.
• 
  Twizzles, traveling multi-rotation turns on one foot

Choctaws are the two-foot equivalents of rockers and counters. Other movements that may be incorporated into step sequences or used as connecting elements include lunges and spread eagles. An Ina Bauer is similar to a spread eagle performed with one knee bent and typically an arched back. Hydroblading refers to a deep edge performed with the body as low as possible to the ice in a near-horizontal position.

Moves in the field is a pre-determined required sequence that demonstrated basic skating skills and edge control. In the context of a competitive program, they include sequences that may include spirals, spread eagles, Ina Bauers, hydroblading, and similar extended edge moves, along with loops, twizzles, and different kinds of turns.

A spiral is an element in which the skater moves across the ice on a specific edge with the free leg held at hip level or above. Spirals are distinguished by the edge of the blade used (inside or outside), the direction of motion (forward or backward), and the skater's position. A spiral sequence is one or more spiral positions and edges done in sequence. Judges look at the depth, stability, and control of the skating edge, speed and ice coverage, extension, and other factors. Some skaters can change edges during a spiral, i.e. from inside to outside edge. Spirals performed on a "flat" are generally not considered as true spirals. Spiral sequences were required in women's and pair skating prior to the 2012–13 season,[29] but from the 2012–13 season onward, they were replaced by the choreographic sequence. The choreographic sequence consists of moves in the field, unlisted jumps, spinning movements, etc. and is required for the men's, women's and pair free program.[30][31][32]

A death spiral is a required element of pair skating. There are four varieties distinguished by the lady's edge and direction of motion. The man performs a pivot, one toe anchored in the ice, while holding the hand of his partner, who circles him on a deep edge with her body almost parallel to the ice. As of 2011, the woman's head must at some time reach her skating knee. The man must also be in a full pivot position and the death spiral must be held for a minimum amount of rotation, depending on the level.

• 
  A basic outside edge spiral position with the free leg held unsupported behind the body.
• 
  A pair outside edge spiral in a catch-foot position.
• 
  Back inside death spiral.
• 
  Parallel mirror spread eagles with the man on an inside edge and the woman on an outside edge.
• 
  Ina Bauer
• 
  Canadian Championships Dance
• 
  Hydroblading
• 
  Male ice dancer in Besti squat while lifting partner
• 
  Spread eagle

Compulsory figures involves using the blades of the figure skates to draw circles, figure eights, and similar shapes on the surface of the ice. Skaters are judged on the accuracy and clarity of the figures and the cleanness and exact placement of the various turns on the circles. Figures were formerly included as a component of singles competitions but were eliminated from international events in 1990.[33] The United States was the last country to retain a separate test and competitive structure for compulsory figures, but the last national-level figures championship was held in 1999. "Moves in the field" (known in the United Kingdom as field moves) replaced compulsory figures as a discipline to teach the same turns and edge skills.

The World Figure Sport Society, based in Lake Placid, NY, hosts an annual World Figure Championship, which was first held in 2015.[34] This event acts to preserve the historic origins of figure skating, offering a perfect black ice surface on which the compulsory figures competition is held.

Skating was formerly judged for "technical merit" (in the free skate), "required elements" (in the short program), and "presentation" (in both programs).[37] The marks for each program ran from 0.0 to 6.0, the latter being the highest. These marks were used to determine a preference ranking (or "ordinal") separately for each judge; the judges' preferences were then combined to determine placements for each skater in each program. The placements for the two programs were then combined, with the free skate placement weighted more heavily than the short program. The highest placing individual (based on the sum of the weighted placements) was declared the winner.[38]

In 2004, in response to the judging controversy during the 2002 Winter Olympics, the ISU adopted the International Judging System (IJS), which became mandatory at all international competitions in 2006, including the 2006 Winter Olympics. The new system is sometimes informally referred to as the Code of Points, however, the ISU has never used the term to describe their system in any of their official communications.

Under the IJS, points are awarded individually for each skating element, and the sum of these points is the total element score (TES). Competitive programs are constrained to include a set number of elements. Each element is judged first by a technical specialist who identifies the specific element and determines its base value. This is done using instant replay video to verify features that distinguish different elements; e.g. the exact foot position at take-off and landing of a jump. A panel of twelve judges then each award a mark for the quality and execution of the element. This mark, called the grade of execution (GOE), is an integer with a minimum value of −5 and a maximum value of +5.[21] The GOE mark is then translated into another value by using the table of values in ISU rule 322. The GOE value from the twelve judges is then processed with a computerized random selection of nine judges, the highest and lowest values are then discarded, and finally the average of the remaining seven is calculated. This average value is then added to (or subtracted from) the base value to determine the total value for the element.[39]

Note: The IJS previously used a GOE scale of −3 to +3[40] but this was changed for the 2018–19 season and is in the early stages of being tested in competitions.

The program components score (PCS) awards points to holistic aspects of a program or other nuances that are not rewarded in the total element score. The components are:[41]

1. Skating skills (SS) reward use of edges and turns, flow over the ice surface, speed and acceleration, ice coverage, clean and controlled curves, multi-directional skating, and mastery of one-foot skating (no overuse of skating on two feet).
2. Transitions (TR)
3. Performance (PE)
4. Composition (CO)
5. Interpretation (IN)

A detailed description of each component is given in ISU rule 322.2. Judges award each component a raw mark from 0 to 10 in increments of 0.25, with a mark of 5 being defined as "average". For each separate component, the raw marks are then selected, trimmed, and averaged in a manner akin to determining a grade of execution. The trimmed mean scores are then translated into a factored mark by multiplying by a factor that depends on the discipline, competition segment, and level. Then the five (or four) factored marks are added to give the final PCS score.

The total element score and the program components score are added to give the total score for a competition segment (TSS). A skater's final placement is determined by the total of their scores in all segments of a competition. No ordinal rankings are used to determine the final results.

There are also skating competitions organized for professional skaters by independent promoters. These competitions use judging rules set by whoever organizes the competition. There is no "professional league". Well-known professional competitions in the past have included the World Professional Championships (held in Landover, Maryland), the Challenge Of Champions, the Canadian Professional Championships and the World Professional Championships (held in Jaca, Spain).

The Ice Skating Institute (ISI), an international ice rink trade organization, runs its own competitive and test program aimed at recreational skaters. Originally headquartered in Minnesota, the organization now operates out of Dallas, Texas. ISI competitions are open to any member that have registered their tests. There are very few "qualifying" competitions, although some districts hold Gold Competitions for that season's first-place winners. ISI competitions are especially popular in Asian countries that do not have established ISU member federations. The Gay Games have also included skating competitions for same-gender pairs and dance couples under ISI sponsorship. Other figure skating competitions for adults also attract participants from diverse cultures.

The world standing (WS) of a skater/couple is calculated based on the results over the current and preceding two seasons. Competitors receive points based on their final placement at an event and the event's weight. The following events receive points:[42]

• ISU Championships (World, European, Four Continents, and World Junior Championships) and Olympic Winter Games: The best result by points per season, the best two results by points over the three seasons.
• ISU Grand Prix of Figure Skating and Final (senior and junior): The two best results by points per season, the best four results by points over the three seasons.
• International senior calendar competitions: The two best results by points per season, the best four results by points over the three seasons.

Following the current season's World Championships, the results from the earliest season are deleted. A new partnership starts with zero points; there is no transfer of WS points if a pair or ice dance couple split up and form a new partnership.

These standings do not necessarily reflect the capabilities of the skater(s). Due to limits on entries to events (no more than three from each country), and varying numbers of high-level skaters in each country, skaters from some countries may find it more difficult to qualify to compete at major events. Thus, a skater with a lower SB but from a country with few high-level skaters may qualify to a major event while a skater with a much higher SB but from a country with more than three high-level skaters may not be sent. As a result, it is possible for a skater who regularly scores higher to end up with a much lower world standing.

The season's world ranking of a skater/couple is calculated similarly to the overall world standing but is based on the results of the ongoing season only.[42]

The season's best (SB) of a skater/couple is the highest score achieved within a particular season. There is an SB for the combined total score and the individual segment scores (short program/rhythm dance, free skating/free dance). Only scores achieved at selected international competitions are considered; scores from national competitions and some international events are disregarded. The best combined total for each skater or couple appears on a list of season's bests,[43] and the list may be used to help determine participants in the following season's Grand Prix series.

Skaters and couples also have personal best (PB) scores, i.e. the highest scores achieved over their entire career, in terms of combined total and segment scores. However, PB scores are not completely comparable if achieved in different seasons because the ISU regulations and technical rules are modified before each new season.[44] There may be different requirements specified to achieve a certain level; the required elements may change and new elements may be allowed (for example, two quads in the short program were permitted starting in the 2010–11 season); and the point values may change (for example, the values of quads were increased after the 2010 Olympics, and a second step sequence is no longer assigned a level in the men's competition). As a result of these variations in the technical requirements, the ISU places more weight on the season's bests, which are fully comparable within any one season.

For competitive programs, figure skaters were once restricted to instrumental music; vocals were allowed only if they contained no lyrics or words.[45] Beginning in the 1997–98 season, the ISU decided to allow lyrics or words in ice dance music. Although the rules were not relaxed for singles and pairs, judges did not always penalize violations. At the 2011 World Championships, Florent Amodio's long program music included words but an insufficient number of judges voted for a deduction.[46] In June 2012, the ISU voted to allow skaters from all disciplines to choose music with words in their competitive programs beginning in the 2014–15 season.[47][48]

Skaters may use professional music editors so that their music meets requirements.[49] Ice dancers are required to skate to music that has a definite beat or rhythm. Singles and pair skaters more often skate to the melody and phrasing of their music. For long programs, figure skaters generally search for music with different moods and tempos.[50] Music selections for exhibitions are less constrained than for competitive programs.

An example of ice dance costumes (Tessa Virtue and Scott Moir at 2012 World Championships)

Skaters are generally free to select their own attire, with a few restrictions. In competition, women may wear a dress, typically with matching attached briefs. This rule of costuming was created in response to Katarina Witt's costume and performance at the 1988 Winter Olympics.[51] In 2004, the rule was extended to allow women to wear trousers.[52] They may wear opaque flesh-colored leggings or tights under dresses and skirts, which may extend to cover their skates. Men must wear trousers – they are not allowed to wear tights, although, officials do not always impose a deduction for violations.[53] Matching costumes are not required in pair skating and ice dance.[54]

Competition costumes vary widely, from simple designs to heavily beaded or trimmed costumes. Skaters risk a deduction if a piece of their costume falls onto the ice surface. An official may stop a program if he or she deems there to be a hazard. Skaters and family members may design their own costumes, sometimes with assistance from their coach or choreographer, or turn to professional designers.[54][55][56][57] Costumes may cost thousands of dollars if designed by a top-level costume maker.

According to current ISU regulations, costumes in competition must be fair, non-revealing, and appropriate for both short and long programs. Costumes should not be showy or exotic in nature. Clothing, however, can reflect the genre of music chosen.[9] Although the use of flesh-colored fabric means the costumes are often less revealing than they may appear, there have been repeated attempts to ban clothing that gives the impression of "excessive nudity" or that is otherwise inappropriate for athletic competition.[58] In general, accessories or props are not permitted in competition.[9] The ISU allowed an exception for the original dance in the 2007–08 season but not since.

To compete internationally on the senior level, skaters must be at least 15 before July 1 of the preceding year. To be eligible for junior-level events, a skater must be at least 13 but under 19 before that date (or 21 for male pair skaters and ice dancers).[59][60] A skater must meet the age requirement before it becomes July 1 in their place of birth. For example, Adelina Sotnikova was born a few hours into July 1, 1996, in Moscow and consequently, was not eligible to compete at Junior Worlds until 2011 and senior Worlds until 2013.[61] The ISU's rules apply to international events. Many countries have no age requirements for domestic non-ISU competitions, thus, some skaters compete at the senior level nationally while not eligible for international competition.

The ISU has modified its age rules several times. Before the 1990s, 12 was the minimum age for senior international competitions.[62] New rules were introduced in 1996, requiring skaters to be at least 15 before July 1 of the preceding year to compete at the Olympics, Worlds, Europeans, or Four Continents.[59] The minimum age for all other senior internationals was 14 until July 2014, when it was raised to 15.

During the 2005–06 season, Mao Asada of Japan was age-eligible to compete at the Grand Prix Final, where she claimed the title, but she was not permitted to compete at the Olympics. For the 2008 World Championships, the United States was obliged to send skaters who had placed 5th and 7th at nationals because higher-placed skaters were too young, including a skater who missed the cutoff by 20 days.[59][63] The ISU has strictly enforced the rules in recent years.[59] However, American pair skater Natasha Kuchiki was allowed to compete at the 1990 World Championships when she was two years too young and American single skater Tara Lipinski, who was 13 at the time the 1996 rules were introduced, was grandfathered into remaining eligible for future events, along with other skaters who had already competed at the World Championships. A loophole also existed for a few years for underage skaters who had medaled at Junior Worlds.[64]

As in gymnastics, skating has experienced controversy surrounding possible age falsification. On February 14, 2011, questions emerged surrounding nine Chinese skaters. The Associated Press found that birthdates listed on the Chinese Skating Association's website suggested five female skaters, Sui Wenjing, Zhang Dan, Yu Xiaoyu, Geng Bingwa, and Xu Binshu, were younger than their ISU ages, and four male skaters, Han Cong, Zhang Hao, Jin Yang, and Gao Yu, were older.[59] The dates disappeared from the website by February 15.[65] On February 17, the ISU said there were no discrepancies for Zhang Dan, Zhang Hao, and Xu Binshu between the birthdates listed on their passports, ISU registration forms and the Chinese Olympic Committee's website.[65] Athletes in China sometimes face pressure to falsify their age.[66]

Skaters may represent a country of which they are not yet a citizen in most competitions, except the Olympics which require citizenship.

At most international events, each country may send one to a maximum of three entries per discipline. Consequently, even if a skater has a high season's best, he or she may not be sent to major events if their country has many good skaters in their discipline. Some skaters have tried to circumvent this by representing another country. In response, the ISU introduced rules barring skaters from international events for a certain period of time. In the 2010 regulations, it was 24 months or more from the date of the last ISU Championship.[67] In the 2012 regulations, the minimum was 18 months for singles and 12 months for pairs/ice dancers from the date of their last ISU Championships (Worlds, Europeans, Four Continents, Junior Worlds) and 12 months if they competed in some other international competition.[68] Competitors may sit out for much longer because they also have to obtain a release from their previous federation. The ISU has set no limit to how long a country may hold skaters.[68]

Skaters may lose their ISU eligibility if they perform in an unsanctioned show or competition.

Beginning in the 2010–11 season, minimum scores were introduced for the World, European, or Four Continents Championships. In the 2011–12 season, different minimum scores were introduced for the Grand Prix series.

Special figures by Nikolai Panin at the 1908 Olympics

The International Skating Union was founded in 1892. The first European Figure Skating Championships were held in 1891 in Hamburg, Germany (won by Oskar Uhlig), and the first World Figure Skating Championships were held in 1896 in Saint Petersburg, Russia (won by Gilbert Fuchs). Only men competed in the early events but in 1902 a woman entered the World Championships for the first time: British female skater Madge Syers competed in the men's competition, finishing in second place behind Sweden's Ulrich Salchow. The ISU quickly banned women from competing against men, and established a separate "ladies" competition in 1906. Pair skating was introduced at the 1908 World Championships, where the title was won by Anna Hübler and Heinrich Burger of Germany.

Figure skating was the first winter sport contested at the Olympics; it made its Olympic debut at the 1908 Summer Olympics in London.[1][123] On March 20, 1914, an international figure skating championship was held in New Haven, Connecticut. This event was the forerunner of both the United States and Canadian National Championships. However, international competitions in figure skating were interrupted by World War I.

In the 1920s and 1930s, figure skating was dominated by Sonja Henie of Norway. Henie turned competitive success into a lucrative professional career as a movie star and touring skater, also setting the fashion for female skaters to wear short skirts and white boots.[124] The top male figure skaters of this period included Sweden's Gillis Grafström and Austria's Karl Schäfer.

Skating competitions were again interrupted for several years by World War II. After the war, with many European rinks in ruins, skaters from the United States and Canada began to dominate international competitions and to introduce technical innovations to the sport. Dick Button, 1948 and 1952 Olympic Champion, was the first skater to perform the double Axel and triple loop jumps, as well as the flying camel spin.

The World Figure Skating Championships did not include ice dance until 1952.[123] In its early years, ice dance was dominated by British skaters, and until 1960 the world title was won every year by a British couple, beginning with Jean Westwood and Lawrence Demmy.[125]

Russian pair skaters Ludmila Belousova and Oleg Protopopov in 1968

On February 15, 1961, the entire U.S. figure skating team and their coaches were killed in the crash of Sabena Flight 548 in Brussels, Belgium en route to the World Championships in Prague. This tragedy sent the U.S. skating program into a period of rebuilding.

Meanwhile, the Soviet Union rose to become a dominant force in the sport, especially in the disciplines of pair skating and ice dance. At every Winter Olympics from 1964 until 2006, a Soviet or Russian pair won gold in pair skating, in what is often considered to be one of the longest winning streaks in modern sports history.[126][127][128] The 1967 World Championships was the last event held on an outdoor rink.[129]

Compulsory figures formerly accounted for up to 60% of the score in singles figure skating,[33] meaning that skaters who could build up a significant lead in figures could win competitions even if they were mediocre free skaters. As television coverage of skating events became more important, the popularity of free skating increased because this part of the competition was televised and shown to the general public, whereas the compulsory figures competition was not. The television audience would complain when superior free programs sometimes failed to equate to gold medal victories.[130] Beginning in 1968, the ISU progressively reduced the weighting of compulsory figures and introduced the short program in 1973.[33] A critical issue was said to have been the continued failure of Janet Lynn to achieve on the world stage despite her outstanding free skate programs. For example, she missed out on a podium place at the 1971 World Championships after winning the free skate competition decisively, which produced an uproar and loud booing from the audience during the medal ceremony.[130]

With these changes, the emphasis in competitive figure skating shifted to increased athleticism. Landing triple jumps during the short program and the free skate became more important. By the 1980s, some skaters began practising quadruple jumps. Jozef Sabovcik of Czechoslovakia landed a quad toe loop at the 1986 European Championships which was recognized at the event but then ruled invalid three weeks later due to a touchdown with his free foot.[131] At the 1988 World Championships, Kurt Browning of Canada landed the first quad toe loop which has remained ratified.[132] Despite expectations, it was several years before quads became an important part of men's skating.[131] In 1988, Japan's Midori Ito became the first woman to land a triple Axel, pushing the athletic and technical level for women's programs. Worth only 20% by 1989, compulsory figures were eliminated from international competition in 1990.[33]

Takahiko Kozuka waiting for his marks with coach Nobuo Sato in the "Kiss and cry" area

Television contributed to the sport's popularity by showing skaters in the kiss and cry area after competing.[133] Television also played a role in removing the restrictive amateur status rules that once governed the sport. In May 1990, the ISU voted to allow skaters intending to skate professionally to return to ISU competition, provided that they obtained their national association's permission.[134] In 1995, in an effort to retain skaters who might otherwise have given up their eligibility to participate in lucrative professional events, the ISU introduced prize money at its major competitions, funded by revenues from selling the TV rights to those events.

In 1984, more than 24 million people in Great Britain watched ice dance pair Jayne Torvill and Christopher Dean earn unanimous 6.0s for presentation, the only perfect score in Olympic skating history, which was ranked the 8th greatest sporting moment in a UK poll.[135][136] In the 1993 National Sports Study II, considered by the Associated Press as the largest study of spectator sport popularity in America, women's figure skating was the second most popular spectator sport in America, just behind NFL football out of over 100 sports surveyed.[137] The 1993 study found that three figure skaters – Dorothy Hamill, Peggy Fleming, and Scott Hamilton[138] – were among the eight most popular athletes in the United States, of more than 800 athletes surveyed.[139] Dorothy Hamill was statistically tied with Mary Lou Retton as the most popular athlete in America. The Tonya Harding scandal in 1994 increased interest in figure skating.[140] The first night of the women's figure skating competition in the 1994 Winter Olympics achieved higher Nielsen TV ratings than the Super Bowl three weeks earlier and, to that date, was the most watched sports television program of all time.[141]

To show support, spectators sometimes throw a variety of items onto the ice after the end of a figure skating program, most commonly stuffed toys and flowers. Officials discourage people from throwing flowers that are not fully wrapped because of the possibility of debris disrupting or endangering the following skaters.[142][143]

Countries that have produced a great many successful skaters include Russia and the former Soviet Union, the United States, Canada, Japan, China, France, Germany, and Italy. While the sport has grown in East Asia, training opportunities in South Asia are limited due to a scarcity of ice rinks. India had only four major indoor ice rinks as of 2011, but there were plans for ten more to be built, mostly in malls, over the following five years.[144] As of 2016, three of these intended ten indoor rinks were built at Neptune Magnet Mall,[145] Atria Millennium Mall,[146] and Lulu Mall[147] respectively.

Four skating has mostly disappeared, while synchronized skating, singles/pair skating and ice dance have grown. On April 6, 2011, the International Olympic Committee officially confirmed the approval of a figure skating team event, which was introduced at the 2014 Winter Olympics.[18] The elimination of the compulsory dance segment provided space for the team event.[148] Each team is composed of a men's and women's singles skater, a pair, and an ice dance duo. A maximum of ten teams can compete, with five eliminated after the short program.[149] In December 2011, the ISU released details of the qualifying system and the competition.[150]

• Evaluation of Errors in Figures, with Sections on Free Skating and Pair Skating (8th ed.). USFSA. 1976.
• Petkevich, John Misha (1988). Figure Skating: Championship Techniques. Sports Illustrated. ISBN 0-452-26209-7.
• Dĕdič, Josef (1974). Single Figure Skating.
• Wright, Benjamin T. (1996). Skating in America (1921-1996): The 75th Anniversary History of the United States Figure Skating Association. USFSA.
• Boo, Michael (1998). The Story of Figure Skating. Harper Collins. ISBN 0-688-15821-8.
• Smith, Beverley (1994). Figure Skating: A Celebration. McClelland & Stewart. ISBN 0-7710-2819-9.
• Ogilvie, Robert S. (1985). Competitive Figure Skating: A Parent's Guide. Harper Collins. ISBN 0-06-015375-X.
• Johnson, Susan A.: "And Then There Were None". Skating, March/April 1991.
• Rossano, George. "Mechanics of Lifts". Ice Skating International. Archived from the original on March 13, 2016.
• ISU Constitution & Regulations
• ISU Judging System Summary
• "ISU Judging Systems". International Skating Union. Archived from the original on March 29, 2009.
• Scoring System: IJS vs. 6.0 system (US Figure Skating Association)
• "Understanding the International Judging System" (US Figure Skating Association)