Angle

There is some common terminology for angles, whose measure is always non-negative (see § Positive and negative angles):[4][5]

• An angle equal to 0° or not turned is called a zero angle.
• An angle smaller than a right angle (less than 90°) is called an acute angle ("acute" meaning "sharp").
• An angle equal to 1/4 turn (90° or π/2 radians) is called a right angle. Two lines that form a right angle are said to be normal, orthogonal, or perpendicular.
• An angle larger than a right angle and smaller than a straight angle (between 90° and 180°) is called an obtuse angle ("obtuse" meaning "blunt").
• An angle equal to 1/2 turn (180° or π radians) is called a straight angle.
• An angle larger than a straight angle but less than 1 turn (between 180° and 360°) is called a reflex angle.
• An angle equal to 1 turn (360° or 2π radians) is called a full angle, complete angle, round angle or a perigon.
• An angle that is not a multiple of a right angle is called an oblique angle.

The names, intervals, and measuring units are shown in the table below:

Right angle

Acute (a), obtuse (b), and straight (c) angles. The acute and obtuse angles are also known as oblique angles.

Reflex angle

• Angles that have the same measure (i.e. the same magnitude) are said to be equal or congruent. An angle is defined by its measure and is not dependent upon the lengths of the sides of the angle (e.g. all right angles are equal in measure).
• Two angles that share terminal sides, but differ in size by an integer multiple of a turn, are called coterminal angles.
• A reference angle is the acute version of any angle determined by repeatedly subtracting or adding straight angle (1/2 turn, 180°, or π radians), to the results as necessary, until the magnitude of the result is an acute angle, a value between 0 and 1/4 turn, 90°, or π/2 radians. For example, an angle of 30 degrees has a reference angle of 30 degrees, and an angle of 150 degrees also has a reference angle of 30 degrees (180° − 150°). An angle of 750 degrees has a reference angle of 30 degrees (750° − 720°).[6]

Angles A and B are a pair of vertical angles; angles C and D are a pair of vertical angles. Hatch marks are used here to show angle equality.

When two straight lines intersect at a point, four angles are formed. Pairwise these angles are named according to their location relative to each other.

• A pair of angles opposite each other, formed by two intersecting straight lines that form an "X"-like shape, are called vertical angles or opposite angles or vertically opposite angles. They are abbreviated as vert. opp. ∠s.[7]

The equality of vertically opposite angles is called the vertical angle theorem. Eudemus of Rhodes attributed the proof to Thales of Miletus.[8][9] The proposition showed that since both of a pair of vertical angles are supplementary to both of the adjacent angles, the vertical angles are equal in measure. According to a historical note,[9] when Thales visited Egypt, he observed that whenever the Egyptians drew two intersecting lines, they would measure the vertical angles to make sure that they were equal. Thales concluded that one could prove that all vertical angles are equal if one accepted some general notions such as:

• All straight angles are equal.
• Equals added to equals are equal.
• Equals subtracted from equals are equal.

When two adjacent angles form a straight line, they are supplementary. Therefore, if we assume that the measure of angle A equals x, then the measure of angle C would be 180° − x. Similarly, the measure of angle D would be 180° − x. Both angle C and angle D have measures equal to 180° − x and are congruent. Since angle B is supplementary to both angles C and D, either of these angle measures may be used to determine the measure of Angle B. Using the measure of either angle C or angle D, we find the measure of angle B to be 180° − (180° − x) = 180° − 180° + x = x. Therefore, both angle A and angle B have measures equal to x and are equal in measure.

Angles A and B are adjacent.

• Adjacent angles, often abbreviated as adj. ∠s, are angles that share a common vertex and edge but do not share any interior points. In other words, they are angles that are side by side, or adjacent, sharing an "arm". Adjacent angles which sum to a right angle, straight angle, or full angle are special and are respectively called complementary, supplementary and explementary angles (see § Combining angle pairs below).

A transversal is a line that intersects a pair of (often parallel) lines, and is associated with alternate interior angles, corresponding angles, interior angles, and exterior angles.[10]

Three special angle pairs involve the summation of angles:

The complementary angles a and b (b is the complement of a, and a is the complement of b).

• Complementary angles are angle pairs whose measures sum to one right angle (1/4 turn, 90°, or π/2 radians).[11] If the two complementary angles are adjacent, their non-shared sides form a right angle. In Euclidean geometry, the two acute angles in a right triangle are complementary, because the sum of internal angles of a triangle is 180 degrees, and the right angle itself accounts for 90 degrees.

The adjective complementary is from Latin complementum, associated with the verb complere, "to fill up". An acute angle is "filled up" by its complement to form a right angle.

The difference between an angle and a right angle is termed the complement of the angle.[12]

If angles A and B are complementary, the following relationships hold:

${\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}&\sin ^{2}A+\sin ^{2}B=1&&\cos ^{2}A+\cos ^{2}B=1\\[3pt]&\tan A=\cot B&&\sec A=\csc B\end{aligned}}}$

(The tangent of an angle equals the cotangent of its complement and its secant equals the cosecant of its complement.)

The prefix "co-" in the names of some trigonometric ratios refers to the word "complementary".

The angles a and b are supplementary angles.

• Two angles that sum to a straight angle (1/2 turn, 180°, or π radians) are called supplementary angles.[13]

If the two supplementary angles are adjacent (i.e. have a common vertex and share just one side), their non-shared sides form a straight line. Such angles are called a linear pair of angles.[14] However, supplementary angles do not have to be on the same line, and can be separated in space. For example, adjacent angles of a parallelogram are supplementary, and opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral (one whose vertices all fall on a single circle) are supplementary.

If a point P is exterior to a circle with center O, and if the tangent lines from P touch the circle at points T and Q, then ∠TPQ and ∠TOQ are supplementary.

The sines of supplementary angles are equal. Their cosines and tangents (unless undefined) are equal in magnitude but have opposite signs.

In Euclidean geometry, any sum of two angles in a triangle is supplementary to the third, because the sum of internal angles of a triangle is a straight angle.

Sum of two explementary angles is a complete angle.

• Two angles that sum to a complete angle (1 turn, 360°, or 2π radians) are called explementary angles or conjugate angles.

  The difference between an angle and a complete angle is termed the explement of the angle or conjugate of an angle.

Internal and external angles.

• An angle that is part of a simple polygon is called an interior angle if it lies on the inside of that simple polygon. A simple concave polygon has at least one interior angle that is a reflex angle.

  In Euclidean geometry, the measures of the interior angles of a triangle add up to π radians, 180°, or 1/2 turn; the measures of the interior angles of a simple convex quadrilateral add up to 2π radians, 360°, or 1 turn. In general, the measures of the interior angles of a simple convex polygon with n sides add up to (n − 2)π radians, or (n − 2)180 degrees, (n − 2)2 right angles, or (n − 2)1/2 turn.

• The supplement of an interior angle is called an exterior angle, that is, an interior angle and an exterior angle form a linear pair of angles. There are two exterior angles at each vertex of the polygon, each determined by extending one of the two sides of the polygon that meet at the vertex; these two angles are vertical and hence are equal. An exterior angle measures the amount of rotation one has to make at a vertex to trace out the polygon.[15] If the corresponding interior angle is a reflex angle, the exterior angle should be considered negative. Even in a non-simple polygon it may be possible to define the exterior angle, but one will have to pick an orientation of the plane (or surface) to decide the sign of the exterior angle measure.

  In Euclidean geometry, the sum of the exterior angles of a simple convex polygon, if only one of the two exterior angles is assumed at each vertex, will be one full turn (360°). The exterior angle here could be called a supplementary exterior angle. Exterior angles are commonly used in Logo Turtle programs when drawing regular polygons.

• In a triangle, the bisectors of two exterior angles and the bisector of the other interior angle are concurrent (meet at a single point).[16]^{: p. 149}
• In a triangle, three intersection points, each of an external angle bisector with the opposite extended side, are collinear.[16]^{: p. 149}
• In a triangle, three intersection points, two of them between an interior angle bisector and the opposite side, and the third between the other exterior angle bisector and the opposite side extended, are collinear.[16]^{: p. 149}
• Some authors use the name exterior angle of a simple polygon to simply mean the explement exterior angle (not supplement!) of the interior angle.[17] This conflicts with the above usage.

• The angle between two planes (such as two adjacent faces of a polyhedron) is called a dihedral angle.[12] It may be defined as the acute angle between two lines normal to the planes.
• The angle between a plane and an intersecting straight line is equal to ninety degrees minus the angle between the intersecting line and the line that goes through the point of intersection and is normal to the plane.

The angle addition postulate states that if B is in the interior of angle AOC, then

${\displaystyle m\angle \mathrm {AOC} =m\angle \mathrm {AOB} +m\angle \mathrm {BOC} }$

The measure of the angle AOC is the sum of the measure of angle AOB and the measure of angle BOC.

Definition of 1 radian

Throughout history, angles have been measured in various units. These are known as angular units, with the most contemporary units being the degree ( ° ), the radian (rad), and the gradian (grad), though many others have been used throughout history.[19] Most units of angular measurement are defined such that one turn (i.e. one full circle) is equal to n units, for some whole number n. Two exceptions are the radian (and its decimal submultiples) and the diameter part.

In the International System of Quantities, angle is defined as a dimensionless quantity, and in particular the radian unit is dimensionless. This convention impacts how angles are treated in dimensional analysis. For a discussion see Radian § Dimensional analysis.

The following table list some units used to represent angles.

Although the definition of the measurement of an angle does not support the concept of a negative angle, it is frequently useful to impose a convention that allows positive and negative angular values to represent orientations and/or rotations in opposite directions relative to some reference.

In a two-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system, an angle is typically defined by its two sides, with its vertex at the origin. The initial side is on the positive x-axis, while the other side or terminal side is defined by the measure from the initial side in radians, degrees, or turns. With positive angles representing rotations toward the positive y-axis and negative angles representing rotations toward the negative y-axis. When Cartesian coordinates are represented by standard position, defined by the x-axis rightward and the y-axis upward, positive rotations are anticlockwise and negative rotations are clockwise.

In many contexts, an angle of −θ is effectively equivalent to an angle of "one full turn minus θ". For example, an orientation represented as −45° is effectively equivalent to an orientation represented as 360° − 45° or 315°. Although the final position is the same, a physical rotation (movement) of −45° is not the same as a rotation of 315° (for example, the rotation of a person holding a broom resting on a dusty floor would leave visually different traces of swept regions on the floor).

In three-dimensional geometry, "clockwise" and "anticlockwise" have no absolute meaning, so the direction of positive and negative angles must be defined relative to some reference, which is typically a vector passing through the angle's vertex and perpendicular to the plane in which the rays of the angle lie.

In navigation, bearings or azimuth are measured relative to north. By convention, viewed from above, bearing angles are positive clockwise, so a bearing of 45° corresponds to a north-east orientation. Negative bearings are not used in navigation, so a north-west orientation corresponds to a bearing of 315°.

For an angular unit, it is definitional that the angle addition postulate holds. Some angle measurements where the angle addition postulate does not hold include:

• The slope or gradient is equal to the tangent of the angle; a gradient is often expressed as a percentage. For very small values (less than 5%), the slope of a line is approximately the measure in radians of its angle with the horizontal direction.
• The spread between two lines is defined in rational geometry as the square of the sine of the angle between the lines. As the sine of an angle and the sine of its supplementary angle are the same, any angle of rotation that maps one of the lines into the other leads to the same value for the spread between the lines.
• Although done rarely, one can report the direct results of trigonometric functions, such as the sine of the angle.

Astronomers measure apparent sizes of and distances between objects in degrees from their point of observation.

• 0.5° is the approximate diameter of the Sun and of the Moon as viewed from Earth.
• 1° is the approximate width of the little finger at arm's length.
• 10° is the approximate width of a closed fist at arm's length.
• 20° is the approximate width of a handspan at arm's length.

These measurements clearly depend on the individual subject, and the above should be treated as rough rule of thumb approximations only.

In astronomy, right ascension and declination are usually measured in angular units, expressed in terms of time, based on a 24-hour day.

To define angles in an abstract real inner product space, we replace the Euclidean dot product ( · ) by the inner product ${\displaystyle \langle \cdot ,\cdot \rangle }$, i.e.

${\displaystyle \langle \mathbf {u} ,\mathbf {v} \rangle =\cos(\theta )\ \left\|\mathbf {u} \right\|\left\|\mathbf {v} \right\|.}$

In a complex inner product space, the expression for the cosine above may give non-real values, so it is replaced with

${\displaystyle \operatorname {Re} \left(\langle \mathbf {u} ,\mathbf {v} \rangle \right)=\cos(\theta )\left\|\mathbf {u} \right\|\left\|\mathbf {v} \right\|.}$

or, more commonly, using the absolute value, with

${\displaystyle \left|\langle \mathbf {u} ,\mathbf {v} \rangle \right|=\left|\cos(\theta )\right|\left\|\mathbf {u} \right\|\left\|\mathbf {v} \right\|.}$

The latter definition ignores the direction of the vectors and thus describes the angle between one-dimensional subspaces ${\displaystyle \operatorname {span} (\mathbf {u} )}$ and ${\displaystyle \operatorname {span} (\mathbf {v} )}$ spanned by the vectors ${\displaystyle \mathbf {u} }$ and ${\displaystyle \mathbf {v} }$ correspondingly.

The definition of the angle between one-dimensional subspaces ${\displaystyle \operatorname {span} (\mathbf {u} )}$ and ${\displaystyle \operatorname {span} (\mathbf {v} )}$ given by

${\displaystyle \left|\langle \mathbf {u} ,\mathbf {v} \rangle \right|=\left|\cos(\theta )\right|\left\|\mathbf {u} \right\|\left\|\mathbf {v} \right\|}$

in a Hilbert space can be extended to subspaces of any finite dimensions. Given two subspaces ${\displaystyle {\mathcal {U}}}$, ${\displaystyle {\mathcal {W}}}$ with ${\displaystyle \dim({\mathcal {U}}):=k\leq \dim({\mathcal {W}}):=l}$, this leads to a definition of ${\displaystyle k}$ angles called canonical or principal angles between subspaces.

In Riemannian geometry, the metric tensor is used to define the angle between two tangents. Where U and V are tangent vectors and g_ij are the components of the metric tensor G,

${\displaystyle \cos \theta ={\frac {g_{ij}U^{i}V^{j}}{\sqrt {\left|g_{ij}U^{i}U^{j}\right|\left|g_{ij}V^{i}V^{j}\right|}}}.}$

A hyperbolic angle is an argument of a hyperbolic function just as the circular angle is the argument of a circular function. The comparison can be visualized as the size of the openings of a hyperbolic sector and a circular sector since the areas of these sectors correspond to the angle magnitudes in each case. Unlike the circular angle, the hyperbolic angle is unbounded. When the circular and hyperbolic functions are viewed as infinite series in their angle argument, the circular ones are just alternating series forms of the hyperbolic functions. This weaving of the two types of angle and function was explained by Leonhard Euler in Introduction to the Analysis of the Infinite.