Coral snake

Coral snakes are a large group of elapid snakes that can be subdivided into two distinct groups, Old World coral snakes and New World coral snakes. There are 16 species of Old World coral snakes in three genera (Calliophis, Hemibungarus, and Sinomicrurus), and over 65 recognized species of New World coral snakes in two genera (Micruroides and Micrurus). Genetic studies have found that the most basal lineages are Asian, indicating that the group originated in the Old World.[1][2] While new world species of both genera are venomous their bites are seldom lethal with only 2 confirmed fatalities in the past 100 years from the genus Micrurus; while the genus Micruroides has never had a medically significant bite.[3]

Coral snake
Eastern coral snake (Micrurus fulvius)
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Suborder: Serpentes
Superfamily: Elapoidea
Family: Elapidae

North American coloration patterns

Experts now recognize that coloration patterns and common mnemonics such as “red touch yellow, kill a fellow”, which people use to identify the deadly coral snake are occasionally inconsistent. While any snake exhibiting the coral snake's color banding pattern in the southeastern United States will almost certainly in fact be a coral snake, there are coral snakes in other parts of the world which are colored differently.[4]

Coral snakes in the United States are most notable for their red, yellow/white, and black colored banding. However, several nonvenomous species in the United States have similar (though not identical) coloration, including the two scarlet snake species in the genus Cemophora and some of the kingsnakes and milk snakes in the genus Lampropeltis whose banding, however, does not include any red touching any yellow; also, some ground snakes in the genus Sonora in the southwestern United States can have a color banding pattern that matches that of the sympatric Sonoran coral snake (Micruroides euryxanthus). No genuine coral snakes in the United States, however, exhibit red bands of color in contact with bands of black except in rare cases of an aberrant pattern. So, while on extremely rare occasions a certain non-venomous snake might be mistaken for a coral snake, the mnemonic holds true in that a red–yellow–black banded snake in the United States whose red banding is in contact with its black banding is rarely a venomous coral snake; however, the mnemonic does not always hold true for North American coral snake species found south of the United States. Some species, like the Oaxacan coral snake (Micrurus ephippifer) in Mexico and Clark's coral snake (Micrurus clarki) in Costa Rica and Panama, do typically fit the mnemonic, while others, like the saddled coral snake (Micrurus bernadi) in Mexico, Roatan coral snake (Micrurus ruatanus) in Honduras and redtail coral snake (Micrurus mipartitus) in Panama, do not. Similarly, some South American coral snake species do typically fit the mnemonic, while others do not. In contrast, none of the Old World coral snake species typically fit the mnemonic. Some coral snakes live in the water but most of them will not.

Most species of coral snake are small in size. North American species average around 90 cm (3 ft) in length, but specimens of up to 150 cm (5 ft) or slightly larger have been reported. Aquatic species have flattened tails that act as fins, aiding in swimming.

Behavior
Coral snake showing typically reclusive behavior of hiding under rotting wood. This one was over 75 cm (30 in) long, but less than 25 mm (1 in) across.

Coral snakes vary widely in their behavior, but most are very elusive, fossorial (burrowing) snakes which spend most of their time buried beneath the ground or in the leaf litter of a rainforest floor, coming to the surface only when it rains or during breeding season. Some species, like Micrurus surinamensis, are almost entirely aquatic and spend most of their lives in slow-moving bodies of water that have dense vegetation.

Coral snakes feed mostly on smaller snakes, lizards, frogs, nestling birds, small rodents, etc.

Like all elapid snakes, coral snakes possess a pair of small hollow fangs to deliver their venom. The fangs are positioned at the front of the mouth.[5][6] The fangs are fixed in position rather than retractable, and rather than being directly connected to the venom duct, they have a small groove through which the venom enters the base of the fangs.[7][8] Because the fangs are relatively small and inefficient for venom delivery, rather than biting quickly and letting go (like vipers), coral snakes tend to hold onto their prey and make chewing motions when biting.[7][9] The venom takes time to reach full effect.[8]

Coral snakes are not aggressive or prone to biting and account for less than one percent of the total number of snake bites each year in the United States. The life span of coral snakes in captivity is about seven years.[10]

Reproduction

M. fluvius reproduction is internal fertilization through the use of hemipenes. The breeding season occurs from spring to early summer and late summer to early fall.[11] Male combat is not typical in M. fulvius as males are smaller than females.[12] Micrurus fulvius are oviparous and typically lay eggs from May to July. During early spring females will undergo sudden vitellogenesis–oocyte and yolk formation–in preparation for breeding. Approximately 37 days post fertilization oviposition occurs and the average clutch size ranges from five to seven eggs. The incubation period of the M. fluvius eggs normally reaches 60 days.[11] Males also undergo sexual changes throughout the year, testicular recrudescence start in the fall and testicular regression occurs come spring.[13] However, males typically have mature sperm residing in the epididymis year round and are capable of storing sperm in the deferent duct over the winter till the females are receptive. A study investigating how climate influences the reproductive cycle discovered species found closer to the equator displayed more continuous cycles while those in colder regions had more seasonal cycles. With increasing temperatures as a result of climate change, continuous cycles have the possibility of becoming more prevalent.[12] Offspring reach maturation depending on sex, males mature at roughly 11 to 16 months while females reach maturity later at 26 months.[13] With increasing temperatures as a result of climate change continuous cycles have the possibility of becoming more prevalent.

Distribution (U.S.)
Eastern coral snake (Micrurus fulvius)

New World coral snakes exist in the southern range of many temperate U.S. states. Coral snakes are found in scattered localities in the southern coastal plains from North Carolina to Louisiana, including all of Florida. They can be found in pine and scrub oak sandhill habitats in parts of this range, but sometimes inhabit hardwood areas and pine flatwoods that undergo seasonal flooding.[14]

There is controversy about the classification of the very similar Texas coral snake as a separate species. Its habitat, in Texas, Louisiana, and Arkansas is separated from the eastern coral snake's habitat by the Mississippi River. The coral snake population is most dense in the southeastern United States, but coral snakes have been documented as far north as Kentucky.[15]

The Arizona coral snake is classified as a separate species and genus and is found in central and southern Arizona, extreme southwestern New Mexico and southward to Sinaloa in western Mexico. It occupies arid and semiarid regions in many different habitat types, including thornscrub, desert-scrub, woodland, grassland and farmland. It is found in the plains and lower mountain slopes, at elevations ranging from sea level to 1,800 m (5,800 ft); often found in rocky areas.[16]

Danger to humans

New World coral snakes possess one of the most potent venoms of any North American snake. However, relatively few bites are recorded due to their reclusive nature and the fact they generally inhabit sparsely populated areas. Even in areas that are densely populated bites are rare. According to the American National Institutes of Health, there are an average of 15–25 coral snake bites in the United States each year.[17] When confronted by humans, coral snakes will almost always attempt to flee, and bite only if restrained. In addition, coral snakes have short fangs (proteroglyph dentition) that cannot penetrate thick clothing although bites are possible through normal thin clothing. Any skin penetration, however, is a medical emergency that requires immediate attention.

Historically, the venom of the North American Micrurus and Micruroides species was believed to contain powerful neurotoxins which could paralyze the breathing muscles, requiring mechanical or artificial respiration. It was usually reported that there was only mild pain associated with a bite and that respiratory failure could occur within hours. However recent studies on the bites of at least the Texas Coralsnake (Micrurus tener) have shown that these bites rarely require antivenom, don't usually show any systemic respiratory problems and can be intensely painful.[18] Further studies are necessary to see if these clinical features are true of all Micrurus species.

Shortages of coral snake antivenin were previously reported,[19][20][21] but one source states that production has resumed[22] and, as of July 2021, Pfizer indicates that antivenin is available.[23]

Old World

Genus Calliophis

Species in this genus are:

  • Calliophis beddomei (M.A. Smith, 1943) – Beddome's coral snake (India)
  • Calliophis bibroni (Jan, 1858) – Bibron's coral snake (India)
  • Calliophis bivirgatus (F. Boie, 1827) – blue Malaysian coral snake (Indonesia, Cambodia, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand)
  • Calliophis castoe (E.N. Smith, Ogale, Deepak & Giri, 2012) – Castoe's coral snake (India)
  • Calliophis gracilis (Gray, 1835) – spotted coral snake (Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore)
  • Calliophis haematoetron (E.N. Smith, Manamendra-Arachchi & Somweera, 2008) – blood-bellied coral snake (Sri Lanka)
  • Calliophis intestinalis (Laurenti, 1768) – banded Malaysian coral snake (Indonesia, Malaysia)
  • Calliophis maculiceps (Günther, 1858) – speckled coral snake (Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia, Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos)
  • Calliophis melanurus (Shaw, 1802) – Indian coral snake (India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka)
  • Calliophis nigrescens (Günther, 1862) – black coral snake (India)
  • Calliophis salitan (Brown, Smart, Leviton & Smith, 2018) – Dinagat Island Banded Coralsnake (Philippines)

Genus Hemibungarus

Species in this genus are:

  • Hemibungarus calligaster (Wiegmann, 1835) – barred coral snake (Philippines)
  • Hemibungarus gemianulis (Peters, 1872) – (Philippines)

Genus Sinomicrurus

Species in this genus are:

New World

Genus Micruroides
  • Micruroides euryxanthus (Kennicott, 1860) – Arizona coral snake (lowland regions from Arizona to Sinaloa, Mexico)
    • Micruroides euryxanthus australis (Zweifel & Norris, 1955)
    • Micruroides euryxanthus euryxanthus (Kennicott, 1860)
    • Micruroides euryxanthus neglectus (Roze, 1967)

Genus Micrurus
  • Micrurus albicinctus (Amaral, 1925) – White-banded Coral Snake
  • Micrurus alleni (K.P. Schmidt, 1936) – Allen's coral snake (eastern Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama)
    • Micrurus alleni alleni (K.P. Schmidt, 1936)
    • Micrurus alleni richardi (Taylor, 1951)
    • Micrurus alleni yatesi (Taylor, 1954)
  • Micrurus altirostris (Cope, 1860) (Brazil, Uruguay, and northeastern Argentina)
  • Micrurus ancoralis (Jan, 1872) – regal coral snake (southeastern Panama, western Colombia, and western Ecuador)
    • Micrurus ancoralis ancoralis (Jan 1872)
    • Micrurus ancoralis jani (K.P. Schmidt, 1936)
  • Micrurus annellatus (W. Peters, 1871) – annellated coral snake (southeastern Ecuador, eastern Peru, Bolivia, and western Brazil)
    • Micrurus annellatus annellatus (W. Peters, 1871)
    • Micrurus annellatus balzanii (Boulenger, 1898)
    • Micrurus annellatus bolivianus (Roze, 1967)
  • Micrurus averyi (K.P. Schmidt, 1939) – black-headed coral snake
  • Micrurus baliocoryphus (Cope, 1860) – Mesopotamian coral snake
  • Micrurus bernadi (Cope, 1887) (Mexico)
  • Micrurus bocourti (Jan 1872) – Ecuadorian coral snake (western Ecuador to northern Colombia)
  • Micrurus bogerti (Roze, 1967) – Bogert's coral snake (Oaxaca)
  • Micrurus boicora (Bernarde, Turci, Abegg & Franco, 2018) – Boicora Coral Snake
  • Micrurus brasiliensis (Roze, 1967) – Brazilian short-tailed coral snake
  • Micrurus browni (K.P. Schmidt & H.M. Smith, 1943) – Brown's coral snake (Quintana Roo to Honduras)
    • Micrurus browni browni (K.P. Schmidt & H.M. Smith, 1943)
    • Micrurus browni importunus (Roze, 1967)
    • Micrurus browni taylori (K.P. Schmidt & H.M. Smith, 1943)
  • Micrurus camilae (Renjifo & Lundberg, 2003) (Colombia)
  • Micrurus catamayensis (Roze, 1989) – Catamayo coral snake (Catamayo Valley of Ecuador)
  • Micrurus clarki (K.P. Schmidt, 1936) – Clark's coral snake (southeastern Costa Rica to western Colombia)
  • Micrurus collaris (Schlegel, 1837) – Guyana blackback coral snake (northern South America)
    • Micrurus collaris collaris (Schlegel, 1837)
    • Micrurus collaris breviventris (Roze & Bernal-Carlo, 1987)
  • Micrurus corallinus (Merrem, 1820) – painted coral snake
  • Micrurus decoratus (Jan 1858) – Brazilian coral snake
  • Micrurus diana (Roze, 1983)
  • Micrurus diastema (A.M.C. Duméril, Bibron & A.H.A. Duméril, 1854) – variable coral snake
    • Micrurus diastema aglaeope (Cope, 1859)
    • Micrurus diastema alienus (F. Werner, 1903)
    • Micrurus diastema affinis (Jan 1858)
    • Micrurus diastema apiatus (Jan 1858)
    • Micrurus diastema diastema (A.M.C. Duméril, Bibron & A.H.A. Duméril, 1854)
    • Micrurus diastema macdougalli (Roze, 1967)
    • Micrurus diastema sapperi (F. Werner, 1903)
  • Micrurus dissoleucus (Cope, 1860) – pygmy coral snake
    • Micrurus dissoleucus dissoleucus (Cope, 1860)
    • Micrurus dissoleucus dunni (Barbour, 1923)
    • Micrurus dissoleucus melanogenys (Cope, 1860)
    • Micrurus dissoleucus meridensis (Roze, 1989)
    • Micrurus dissoleucus nigrirostris (K.P. Schmidt, 1955)
  • Micrurus distans (Kennicott, 1860) – West Mexican coral snake
    • Micrurus distans distans (Kennicott, 1860)
    • Micrurus distans michoacanensis (Dugės, 1891)
    • Micrurus distans oliveri (Roze, 1967)
    • Micrurus distans zweifeli (Roze, 1967)
  • Micrurus diutius (Burgur, 1955) – Trinidad Ribbon Coral Snake
  • Micrurus dumerilii (Jan 1858)
    • Micrurus dumerilii antioquiensis (K.P. Schmidt, 1936)
    • Micrurus dumerilii carinicaudus (K.P. Schmidt, 1936)
    • Micrurus dumerilii colombianus (Griffin, 1916)
    • Micrurus dumerilii dumerilii (Jan 1858)
    • Micrurus dumerilii transandinus (K.P. Schmidt, 1936)
    • Micrurus dumerilii venezuelensis (Roze, 1989)
  • Micrurus elegans (Jan 1858) – elegant coral snake
    • Micrurus elegans elegans (Jan 1858)
    • Micrurus elegans veraepacis (K.P. Schmidt, 1933)
  • Micrurus ephippifer (Cope, 1886) – Oaxacan coral snake
    • Micrurus ephippifer ephippifer (Cope, 1886)
    • Micrurus ephippifer zapotecus (Roze, 1989)
  • Micrurus filiformis (Günther, 1859) – slender coral snake
    • Micrurus filiformis filiformis (Günther, 1859)
    • Micrurus filiformis subtilis (Roze, 1967)
  • Micrurus frontalis (A.M.C. Duméril, Bibron & A.H.A. Duméril, 1854) – southern coral snake (Brazil to northeastern Argentina)
    • Micrurus frontalis frontalis (A.M.C. Duméril, Bibron & A.H.A. Duméril, 1854)
    • Micrurus frontalis mesopotamicus (Barrio & Miranda 19)
  • Micrurus fulvius (Linnaeus, 1766) – eastern coral snake (U.S. coastal plains of North Carolina to Louisiana)
  • Micrurus hemprichii (Jan 1858) – Hemprich's coral snake
    • Micrurus hemprichii hemprichii (Jan 1858)
    • Micrurus hemprichii ortoni (K.P. Schmidt, 1953)
    • Micrurus hemprichii rondonianus (Roze & da Silva, 1990)
  • Micrurus hippocrepis (W. Peters, 1862) – Mayan coral snake
  • Micrurus ibiboboca (Merrem, 1820) – Caatinga coral snake
  • Micrurus isozonus (Cope, 1860) – Venezuela coral snake
  • Micrurus langsdorffi (Wagler, 1824) – Langsdorff's coral snake
  • Micrurus laticollaris (W. Peters, 1870) – Balsan coral snake
    • Micrurus laticollaris laticollaris (W. Peters, 1870)
    • Micrurus laticollaris maculirostris (Roze, 1967)
  • Micrurus latifasciatus (K.P. Schmidt, 1933) – broad-ringed coral snake
  • Micrurus lemniscatus (Linnaeus, 1758) – South American coral snake (most of low-lying areas of South America)
    • Micrurus lemniscatus carvalhoi (Roze, 1967)
    • Micrurus lemniscatus frontifasciatus (F. Werner, 1927)
    • Micrurus lemniscatus helleri (K.P. Schmidt & F.J.W. Schmidt, 1925)
    • Micrurus lemniscatus lemniscatus (Linnaeus, 1758)
  • Micrurus limbatus (Fraser, 1964) – Tuxtlan coral snake
    • Micrurus limbatus limbatus (Fraser, 1964)
    • Micrurus limbatus spilosomus (Pérez-Higaredo & H.M. Smith, 1990)
  • Micrurus margaritiferus (Roze, 1967) – speckled coral snake
  • Micrurus medemi (Roze, 1967)
  • Micrurus meridensis (Roze, 1989) – Merida's coral snake
  • Micrurus mertensi (K.P. Schmidt, 1936) – Merten's coral snake
  • Micrurus mipartitus (A.M.C. Duméril, Bibron & A.H.A. Duméril, 1854) – redtail coral snake
    • Micrurus mipartitus anomalus (Boulenger, 1896)
    • Micrurus mipartitus decussatus (A.M.C. Duméril, Bibron, & A.H.A. Duméril, 1854)
    • Micrurus mipartitus mipartitus (A.M.C. Duméril, Bibron & A.H.A. Duméril, 1854)
    • Micrurus mipartitus semipartitus (Jan 1858)
  • Micrurus mosquitensis (Schmidt, 1933) – Misquito coral snake
  • Micrurus multifasciatus (Jan 1858) – many-banded coral snake
    • Micrurus multifasciatus multifasciatus (Jan 1858)
    • Micrurus multifasciatus hertwigi (F. Werner, 1897)
  • Micrurus multiscutatus (Rendahl & Vestergren, 1940) – Cauca coral snake
  • Micrurus narduccii (Jan, 1863) – Andean blackback coral snake
    • Micrurus narduccii narduccii (Jan 1863)
    • Micrurus narduccii melanotus (W. Peters, 1881)
  • Micrurus nattereri (Schmidt, 1952) – Natterer's Coral Snake
  • Micrurus nebularis (Roze, 1989) – cloud forest coral snake
  • Micrurus nigrocinctus (Girard, 1854) – Central American coral snake (Yucatan and Chiapas to Colombia as well as western Caribbean islands)
    • Micrurus nigrocinctus babaspul (Roze, 1967)
    • Micrurus nigrocinctus coibensis (K.P. Schmidt, 1936)
    • Micrurus nigrocinctus divaricatus (Hallowell, 1855)
    • Micrurus nigrocinctus nigrocinctus (Girard, 1854)
    • Micrurus nigrocinctus ovandoensis (K.P. Schmidt & H.M. Smith, 1943)
    • Micrurus nigrocinctus wagneri (Mertens, 1941)
    • Micrurus nigrocinctus yatesi (Dunn, 1942)
    • Micrurus nigrocinctus zunilensis (K.P. Schmidt, 1932)
  • Micrurus obscurus (Jan 1872) – Bolivian Coral Snake
  • Micrurus oligoanellatus (Ayerbe & Lopez, 2005) – Tambito's Coral Snake
  • Micrurus ornatissimus (Jan 1858) – Ornate Coral Snake
  • Micrurus pacaraimae (Morato de Carvalho, 2002)
  • Micrurus pachecogili (Campbell, 2000)
  • Micrurus paraensis (da Cunha & Nascimento, 1973)
  • Micrurus peruvianus (K.P. Schmidt, 1936) – Peruvian coral snake
  • Micrurus petersi (Roze, 1967) – Peters' coral snake
  • Micrurus potyguara (Pires, Da Silva, Feitosa, Prudente, Preira-Filho & Zaher, 2014) – Potyguara coral snake
  • Micrurus proximans (H.M. Smith & Chrapliwy, 1958) – Nayarit coral snake
  • Micrurus psyches (Daudin, 1803) – Carib coral snake
    • Micrurus psyches circinalis (A.M.C. Duméril, Bibron & A.H.A. Duméril, 1854)
    • Micrurus psyches donosoi (Hoge, Cordeiro & Romano, 1976)
    • Micrurus psyches psyches (Daudin, 1803)
  • Micrurus putumayensis (Lancini, 1962) – Putumayo coral snake
  • Micrurus pyrrhocryptus (Cope, 1862)
  • Micrurus remotus (Roze, 1987)
  • Micrurus renjifoi (Lamar, 2003)
  • Micrurus ruatanus (Günther, 1895) – Roatán coral snake
  • Micrurus sangilensis (Nicéforo-María, 1942) – Santander coral snake
  • Micrurus scutiventris (Cope, 1869)
  • Micrurus serranus (Harvey, Aparicio & Gonzalez, 2003)
  • Micrurus silviae (Di-Bernardo et al., 2007)
  • Micrurus spixii (Wagler, 1824) – Amazon coral snake
    • Micrurus spixiii martiusi (K.P. Schmidt, 1953)
    • Micrurus spixii obscurus (Jan 1872)
    • Micrurus spixii princeps (Boulenger, 1905)
    • Micrurus spixii spixii (Wagler, 1824)
  • Micrurus spurelli (Boulenger, 1914)
  • Micrurus steindachneri (F. Werner, 1901) – Steindachner's coral snake
    • Micrurus steindachneri orcesi (Roze, 1967)
    • Micrurus steindachneri steindachneri (F. Werner, 1901)
  • Micrurus stewarti (Barbour & Amaral, 1928) - Panamanian coral snake
  • Micrurus stuarti (Roze, 1967) – Stuart's coral snake
  • Micrurus surinamensis (Cuvier, 1817) - aquatic coral snake
    • Micrurus surinamensis nattereri (K.P. Schmidt, 1952)
    • Micrurus surinamensis surinamensis (Cuvier, 1817)
  • Micrurus tener (Baird & Girard, 1853) – Texas coral snake (Texas and Louisiana south to Morelos and Guanajuato)
    • Micrurus tener fitzingeri (Jan 1858)
    • Micrurus tener maculatus (Roze, 1967)
    • Micrurus tener microgalbineus (Brown & H.M. Smith, 1942)
    • Micrurus tener tamaulipensis (Lavin-Murcio & Dixon, 2004)
    • Micrurus tener tener (Baird & Girard, 1853)
  • Micrurus tricolor (Hoge, 1956)
  • Micrurus tikuna (Feitosa, Da Silva Jr, Pires, Zaher & Prudente, 2015)
  • Micrurus tschudii (Jan 1858) – desert coral snake
    • Micrurus tschudii olssoni (K.P. Schmidt & F.J.W. Schmidt, 1925)
    • Micrurus tschudii tschudii (Jan 1858)

Mimicry

New World coral snakes serve as models for their Batesian mimics, false coral snakes, snake species whose venom is less toxic, as well as for many nonvenomous snake species that bear superficial resemblances to them. The role of coral snakes as models for Batesian mimics is supported by research showing that coral snake color patterns deter predators from attacking snake-shaped prey,[24][25] and that in the absence of coral snakes, species hypothesized to mimic them are indeed attacked more frequently.[26] Species that appear similar to coral snakes include:

  • Cemophora coccinea
  • Chionactis palarostris
  • Erythrolamprus aesculapii
  • Erythrolamprus bizona
  • Erythrolamprus ocellatus, Tobago false coral snake
  • Lampropeltis elapsoides, scarlet kingsnake
  • Lampropeltis pyromelana
  • Lampropeltis triangulum, milk snake, including the following subspecies and others:
    • Lampropeltis triangulum amaura
    • Lampropeltis triangulum annulata
    • Lampropeltis triangulum campbelli
    • Lampropeltis triangulum gaigeae
    • Lampropeltis triangulum gentilis
    • Lampropeltis triangulum hondurensis
    • Lampropeltis triangulum multistrata
    • Lampropeltis triangulum syspila
  • Lampropeltis zonata
  • Lystrophis pulcher, tri-color hognose snake
  • Oxyrhopus petola
  • Oxyrhopus rhombifer, false coral snake
  • Pliocercus elapoides, variegated false coral snake
  • Rhinobothryum bovallii, coral mimic snake, false tree coral
  • Rhinocheilus lecontei tessellatus

References
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Further reading
  • Boulenger, G.A. 1896. Catalogue of the Snakes in the British Museum (Natural History). Volume III., Containing the Colubridæ (Opisthoglyphæ and Proteroglyphæ)... Trustees of the British Museum (Natural History). (Taylor and Francis, Printers.) London. xiv + 727 pp. + Plates I.- XXV. (Elaps, 28 species, pp. 411–433 + Plate XX.)
  • Roze, J.A. 1996. Coral Snakes of the Americas: Biology, Identification, and Venoms. Krieger. Malabar, Florida. 340 pp. ISBN 978-0894648472.
  • Tanaka G. D., Furtado Md. F. D., Portaro F. C. V., Sant'Anna O. A. & Tambourgi D. V. (2010). "Diversity of Micrurus Snake Species Related to Their Venom Toxic Effects and the Prospective of Antivenom Neutralization". PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 4(3): e622. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0000622
  • Universidad de Costa Rica (2009). El envenenamiento por mordedura de serpiente en Centroamérica ("Snakebite poisonings in Central America"). San José, Costa Rica: Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica. (in Spanish)
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