List of sultans of the Ottoman Empire

The sultans of the Ottoman Empire (Turkish: Osmanlı padişahları), who were all members of the Ottoman dynasty (House of Osman), ruled over the transcontinental empire from its perceived inception in 1299 to its dissolution in 1922. At its height, the Ottoman Empire spanned an area from Hungary in the north to rebel in the south and from Algeria in the west to Iraq in the east. Administered at first from the city of Söğüt since before 1280 and then from the city of Bursa since 1323 or 1324, the empire's capital was moved to Adrianople (now known as Edirne in English) in 1363 following its conquest by Murad I and then to Constantinople (present-day Istanbul) in 1453 following its conquest by Mehmed II.[1]

Sultan of Ottoman Empire
Osmanlı padişahı
Imperial
Imperial Coat of arms
Last to reign
Mehmed VI
4 July 1918 – 1 November 1922
Details
StyleHis Imperial Majesty
First monarchOsman I (c. 1299–1323/4)
Last monarchMehmed VI (1918–1922)
Formationc. 1299
Abolition1 November 1922
ResidencePalaces in Istanbul:
  • Topkapı (1460s–1853)
  • Dolmabahçe (1853–1889; 1909–1922)
  • Yıldız (1889–1909)
AppointerHereditary
Ottoman Imperial Standard
Family tree
Ottoman Empire in 1683, at the height of its territorial expansion in Europe.

The Ottoman Empire's early years have been the subject of varying narratives, due to the difficulty of discerning fact from legend. The empire came into existence at the end of the 13th century, and its first ruler (and the namesake of the Empire) was Osman I. According to later, often unreliable Ottoman tradition, Osman was a descendant of the Kayı tribe of the Oghuz Turks.[2] The eponymous Ottoman dynasty he founded endured for six centuries through the reigns of 36 sultans. The Ottoman Empire disappeared as a result of the defeat of the Central Powers, with whom it had allied itself during World War I. The partitioning of the Empire by the victorious Allies and the ensuing Turkish War of Independence led to the abolition of the sultanate in 1922 and the birth of the modern Republic of Turkey in 1922.[3]

Names

The sultan was also referred to as the Padishah (Ottoman Turkish: پادشاه, romanized: pâdişâh, French: Padichah). In Ottoman usage the word "Padisha" was usually used except "sultan" was used when he was directly named.[4] In several European languages, he was referred to as the Grand Turk, as the ruler of the Turks,[5] or simply the "Great Lord" (il Gran Signore, le grand seigneur) especially in the 16th century.

Names of the sultan in languages used by ethnic minorities:[4]

  • Arabic: In some documents "Padishah" was replaced by "malik" ("king")[4]
  • Bulgarian: In earlier periods Bulgarian people called him the "tsar". The translation of the Ottoman Constitution of 1876 instead used direct translations of "sultan" (Sultan) and "padishah" (Padišax)[4]
  • Greek: In earlier periods the Greeks used the Byzantine Empire-style name "basileus". The translation of the Ottoman Constitution of 1876 instead used a direct transliterations of "sultan" (Σουλτάνος Soultanos) and "padishah" (ΠΑΔΙΣΑΧ padisach).[4]
  • Judaeo-Spanish: Especially in older documents, El Rey ("the king") was used. In addition some Ladino documents used sultan (in Hebrew characters: שולטן and סולטן).[4]

State organisation of the Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire was an absolute monarchy during much of its existence. By the second half of the fifteenth century, the sultan sat at the apex of a hierarchical system and acted in political, military, judicial, social, and religious capacities under a variety of titles.[a] He was theoretically responsible only to God and God's law (the Islamic شریعت şeriat, known in Arabic as شريعة sharia), of which he was the chief executor. His heavenly mandate (Kut) was reflected in Islamic titles such as "shadow of God on Earth" (ظل الله في العالم ẓıll Allāh fī'l-ʿalem) and "caliph of the face of the earth" (خلیفه روی زمین Ḫalife-i rū-yi zemīn).[6] All offices were filled by his authority, and every law was issued by him in the form of a decree called firman (فرمان). He was the supreme military commander and had the official title to all land.[7] Osman (died 1323–4) son of Ertuğrul was the first ruler of the Ottoman state, which during his reign constituted a small principality (beylik) in the region of Bithynia on the frontier of the Byzantine Empire.

After the conquest of Constantinople in 1453 by Mehmed II, Ottoman sultans came to regard themselves as the successors of the Roman Empire, hence their occasional use of the titles caesar (قیصر qayser) of Rûm, and emperor,[6][8][9] as well as the caliph of Islam.[b] Newly enthroned Ottoman rulers were girded with the Sword of Osman, an important ceremony that served as the equivalent of European monarchs' coronation.[10] A non-girded sultan was not eligible to have his children included in the line of succession.[11]

Although absolute in theory and in principle, the sultan's powers were limited in practice. Political decisions had to take into account the opinions and attitudes of important members of the dynasty, the bureaucratic and military establishments, as well as religious leaders.[7] Beginning in the last decades of the sixteenth century, the role of the Ottoman sultans in the government of the empire began to decrease, in a period known as the Transformation of the Ottoman Empire. Despite being barred from inheriting the throne,[12] women of the imperial harem—especially the reigning sultan's mother, known as the valide sultan—also played an important behind-the-scenes political role, effectively ruling the empire during the period known as the Sultanate of Women.[13]

Constitutionalism was established during the reign Abdul Hamid II, who thus became the empire's last absolute ruler and its reluctant first constitutional monarch.[14] Although Abdul Hamid II abolished the parliament and the constitution to return to personal rule in 1878, he was again forced in 1908 to reinstall constitutionalism and was deposed. Since 2021, the head of the House of Osman has been Harun Osman, a great-grandson of Abdul Hamid II.[15]

List of sultans
Poster showing Sultans of the Ottoman Dynasty, from Osman I (upper left corner) to Mehmed V (large portrait in the center)

The table below lists Ottoman sultans, as well as the last Ottoman caliph, in chronological order. The tughras were the calligraphic seals or signatures used by Ottoman sultans. They were displayed on all official documents as well as on coins, and were far more important in identifying a sultan than his portrait. The "Notes" column contains information on each sultan's parentage and fate. Early Ottomans practiced what historian Quataert has described as "survival of the fittest, not eldest, son": when a sultan died, his sons had to fight each other for the throne until a victor emerged. Because of the infighting and numerous fratricides that occurred, there was often a time gap between a sultan's death date and the accession date of his successor.[16] In 1617, the law of succession changed from survival of the fittest to a system based on agnatic seniority (اکبریت ekberiyet), whereby the throne went to the oldest male of the family. This in turn explains why from the 17th century onwards a deceased sultan was rarely succeeded by his own son, but usually by an uncle or brother.[17] Agnatic seniority was retained until the abolition of the sultanate, despite unsuccessful attempts in the 19th century to replace it with primogeniture.[18] Note that pretenders and co-claimants during the Ottoman Interregnum are also listed here, but they are not included in the formal numbering of sultans.

No. Sultan Portrait Reign Tughra Notes Coinage
Rise of the Ottoman Empire
(1299 – 1453)
1 Osman I c. 1299 – c. 1324[19]
(25 years~)		 —[c]
  • Son of Ertuğrul Bey[20] and an unknown woman.[21]
  • Reigned until his death.
2 Orhan c. 1324 – March 1362
(38 years~)
  • Son of Osman I and Malhun Hatun (unclear).[21]
  • Reigned until his death.
3 Murad I[b] March 1362 – 15 June 1389
(27 years, 3 months)
4 Bayezid I 15 June 1389 – 20 July 1402
(13 years, 35 days)
  • Son of Murad I and Gülçiçek Hatun.[21]
  • Captured on the battlefield at the Battle of Ankara against Timur.
  • Died in captivity in Akşehir on 8 March 1403.
 —
Ottoman Interregnum[d]
(20 July 1402 – 5 July 1413)
— İsa Çelebi January – May 1403
(4 months)		 —
  • Co-sultan of Anatolia
  • After the Battle of Ankara, İsa Çelebi defeated Musa Çelebi and took the western Anatolian territories for approximately two years.
  • Defeated by Mehmed Çelebi in the Battle of Ulubad in March or May 1403.
  • Strangled in September 1403.
 —
— Süleyman Çelebi 20 July 1402 –
17 February 1411[22]
(8 years, 212 days)
  • Acquired the title of The Sultan of Rumelia for the European portion of the empire, a short period after the Ottoman defeat at Ankara.
  • Murdered on 17 February 1411.[22]
— Musa Çelebi 18 February 1411 –
5 July 1413[23]
(2 years, 137 days)		 —
  • Acquired the title of The Sultan of Rumelia for the European portion of the empire[24] on 18 February 1411, just after the death of Süleyman Çelebi.
  • Killed on 5 July 1413 by Mehmed Çelebi's forces in the battle of Çamurlu Derbent near Samokov in Bulgaria.[23]
 —
— Mehmed Çelebi 1403 – 5 July 1413
(10 years)		 —
  • Acquired the control of Eastern Anatolia as co-Sultan after the Battle of Ankara.
  • Defeated İsa Çelebi in the battle of Ulubat in 1405.
  • Became the sole ruler of Anatolia upon İsa's death in 1406.
  • Acquired the title of Ottoman Sultan Mehmed I Khan upon Musa's death.
Sultanate resumed
5 Mehmed I 5 July 1413 – 26 May 1421
(7 years, 325 days)
  • Son of Bayezid I and Devlet Hatun.[21]
  • Reigned until his death.
 —
— Mustafa Çelebi — January 1419 – May 1422
(3 years, 4 months)		 —
6 Murad II 25 June 1421 –
August 1444
(23 years, 2 months)
  • Son of Mehmed I and Emine Hatun.[21]
  • Abdicated of his own free will in favour of his son Mehmed II.
7 Mehmed II August 1444 –
September 1446
(2 years, 1 month)
  • First reign
  • Son of Murad II and Hüma Hatun.[21]
  • Surrendered the throne to his father after having asked him to return to power, along with rising threats from Janissaries.
(6) Murad II September 1446 –
3 February 1451
(4 years, 5 months)
  • Second reign
  • Forced to return to the throne following a Janissary insurgence.[25]
  • Reigned until his death.
 —
Growth of the Ottoman Empire
(1453–1550)
(7) Mehmed II 3 February 1451 –
3 May 1481
(30 years, 89 days)
8 Bayezid II 19 May 1481 –
25 April 1512
(30 years, 342 days)
  • Son of Mehmed II and Gülbahar Sultan.[21]
  • Abdicated.
  • Died near Didymoteicho on 26 May 1512.
— Cem Sultan 28 May – 20 June 1481
(23 days)
  • Son of Mehmed II
  • Acquired the title Cem bin Mehmed Han.[26]
  • Died in exile
9 Selim I 25 April 1512 –
21 September 1520
(8 years, 149 days)
  • Conquered Mamluks in 1516–1517.
  • First Ottoman Caliph.
  • Son of Bayezid II and Gülbahar Hatun.
  • Reigned until his death.
10 Suleiman I 30 September 1520 –
6 September 1566
(45 years, 341 days)
  • Son of Selim I and Hafsa Sultan.
  • Died of natural causes in his tent during the Siege of Szigetvár in 1566.[27]
Transformation of the Ottoman Empire
(1550–1700)
11 Selim II 29 September 1566 –
21 December 1574
(8 years, 83 days)
  • Son of Suleiman I and Hürrem Sultan.
  • Reigned until his death.
12 Murad III 22 December 1574 –
16 January 1595
(20 years, 25 days)
  • Son of Selim II and Nurbanu Sultan.
  • Reigned until his death.
13 Mehmed III 16 January 1595 –
22 December 1603
(8 years, 340 days)
  • Son of Murad III and Safiye Sultan.
  • Reigned until his death
14 Ahmed I 22 December 1603 –
22 November 1617
(13 years, 335 days)
  • Son of Mehmed III and Handan Sultan.
  • Reigned until his death.
15 Mustafa I 22 November 1617 –
26 February 1618
(96 days)
  • Son of Mehmed III and Halime Sultan.
  • Deposed due to his mental instability in favour of his young nephew Osman II.
 —
16 Osman II 26 February 1618 –
19 May 1622
(4 years, 82 days)
  • Son of Ahmed I and Mahfiruz Hatun.
  • Deposed in a Janissary riot on 19 May 1622.
  • Murdered on 20 May 1622 by the Grand Vizier Kara Davud Pasha.
(15) Mustafa I 20 May 1622 –
10 September 1623
(1 year, 113 days)
  • Second reign.
  • Returned to the throne after the assassination of his nephew Osman II.
  • Deposed due to his poor mental health and confined until his death in Istanbul on 20 January 1639.
 —
17 Murad IV 10 September 1623 –
8 February 1640
(16 years, 151 days)
  • Son of Ahmed I and Kösem Sultan.
  • Ruled under the regency of his mother Kösem Sultan until 1632.
  • Reigned until his death.
 —
18 Ibrahim 9 February 1640 –
8 August 1648
(8 years, 181 days)
  • Son of Ahmed I and Kösem Sultan.
  • Deposed on 8 August 1648 in a coup led by the Sheikh ul-Islam.
  • Strangled in Istanbul on 18 August 1648 at the behest of the Grand Vizier Mevlevî Mehmed Paşa (Sofu Mehmed Pasha).
 —
19 Mehmed IV 8 August 1648 –
8 November 1687
(39 years, 92 days)
  • Son of Ibrahim and Turhan Sultan.
  • Ruled under the regency of his grandmother Kösem Sultan until 1651.
  • Ruled under the regency of his mother Turhan Sultan from 1651 until 1656.
  • Deposed on 8 November 1687 following the Ottoman defeat at the Second Battle of Mohács.
  • Died in Edirne on 6 January 1693.
 —
20 Suleiman II 8 November 1687 –
22 June 1691
(3 years, 226 days)
  • Son of Ibrahim and Aşub Sultan.
  • Reigned until his death.
21 Ahmed II 22 June 1691 –
6 February 1695
(3 years, 229 days)
  • Son of Ibrahim and Muazzez Sultan.
  • Reigned until his death.
 —
22 Mustafa II 6 February 1695 –
22 August 1703
(8 years, 197 days)
  • Son of Mehmed IV and Gülnuş Sultan.
  • Deposed on 22 August 1703 by a Janissary uprising known as the Edirne Event.
  • Died in Istanbul on 8 January 1704.
 —
Stagnation and reform of the Ottoman Empire
(1700–1827)
23 Ahmed III 22 August 1703 –
1 October 1730
(27 years, 40 days)
  • Son of Mehmed IV and Gülnuş Sultan.
  • Deposed in consequence of the Janissary rebellion led by Patrona Halil.
  • Died on 1 July 1736.
24 Mahmud I 2 October 1730 –
13 December 1754
(24 years, 72 days)
  • Son of Mustafa II and Saliha Sultan.
  • Reigned until his death.
25 Osman III 13 December 1754 –
30 October 1757
(2 years, 321 days)
  • Son of Mustafa II and Şehsuvar Sultan.
  • Reigned until his death.
26 Mustafa III 30 October 1757 –
21 January 1774
(16 years, 83 days)
  • Son of Ahmed III and Mihrişah Kadın.
  • Reigned until his death.
27 Abdul Hamid I 21 January 1774 –
7 April 1789
(15 years, 76 days)
  • Son of Ahmed III and Şermi Kadın.
  • Reigned until his death.
28 Selim III 7 April 1789 –
29 May 1807
(18 years, 52 days)
  • Son of Mustafa III and Mihrişah Sultan.
  • Deposed as a result of the Janissary revolt led by Kabakçı Mustafa against his reforms.
  • Assassinated in Istanbul on 28 July 1808 at the behest of Ottoman Sultan Mustafa IV.
29 Mustafa IV 29 May 1807 –
28 July 1808
(1 year, 60 days)
  • Son of Abdul Hamid I and Sineperver Sultan.
  • Deposed in an insurrection led by Alemdar Mustafa Pasha.
  • Executed in Istanbul on 17 November 1808 by order of Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II.
 —
Modernization of the Ottoman Empire
(1827–1908)
30 Mahmud II 28 July 1808 –
1 July 1839
(30 years, 338 days)
  • Son of Abdul Hamid I and Nakşidil Sultan.
  • Disbanded the Janissaries in consequence of the Auspicious Incident in 1826.
  • Reigned until his death.
31 Abdulmejid I 1 July 1839 –
25 June 1861
(21 years, 359 days)
  • Son of Mahmud II and Bezmiâlem Sultan.
  • Proclaimed the Imperial Edict of Gülhane (Tanzimât Fermânı) that launched the Tanzimat period of reforms and reorganization on 3 November 1839 at the behest of reformist Grand vizier Mustafa Reşid Pasha.
  • Accepted the Islâhat Hatt-ı Hümayun (Imperial Reform Edict) (Islâhat Fermânı) on 18 February 1856;
  • Reigned until his death.
32 Abdulaziz 25 June 1861 –
30 May 1876
(14 years, 340 days)
  • Son of Mahmud II and Pertevniyal Sultan.
  • Deposed by his ministers.
  • Found dead (suicide or murder) five days later.
33 Murad V 30 May – 31 August 1876
(93 days)
  • Son of Abdulmejid I and Şevkefza Kadın.
  • Deposed due to his ill mental health
  • Ordered to reside in Çırağan Palace where he died on 29 August 1904.
 —
34 Abdul Hamid II 31 August 1876 –
27 April 1909
(32 years, 239 days)
  • Son of Abdulmejid I and Tirimüjgan Kadın (later became the adoptive son of Perestu Kadın).
  • Reluctantly allowed the First Constitutional Era on 23 November 1876 and then suspended it on 13 February 1878.
  • Forced to restore the Second Constitutional Era on 3 July 1908;
  • Deposed after the 31 March Incident.
  • Confined to Beylerbeyi Palace where he died on 10 February 1918.
35 Mehmed V 27 April 1909 –
3 July 1918
(9 years, 67 days)
  • Son of Abdulmejid I and Gülcemal Kadın.
  • Reigned as a figurehead of Mehmed Talat, İsmail Enver, and Ahmed Cemal Pashas until his death.
36 Mehmed VI 4 July 1918 –
1 November 1922
(4 years, 120 days)
  • Son of Abdulmejid I and Gülüstü Hanım.
  • Sultanate abolished.
  • Left Istanbul on 17 November 1922.
  • Died in exile in Sanremo, Italy on 16 May 1926.
Caliph under the Republic
(1 November 1922 – 3 March 1924)
— Abdulmejid II 18 November 1922 –
3 March 1924
(1 year, 106 days)		 —
[c]
  • Son of Abdulaziz and Hayranidil Kadın;[28]
  • Exiled after the abolition of the Caliphate;[29]
  • Died in Paris, France on 23 August 1944.[30]
 —

See also
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sultans of the Ottoman Empire.
  • Line of succession to the Ottoman throne
  • Ottoman Sultan family tree
  • Ottoman family tree (more detailed)
  • List of valide sultans
  • List of Ottoman Grand Viziers
  • List of admirals in the Ottoman Empire
  • List of Ottoman Kaptan Pashas

Notes
a1 2 : The full style of the Ottoman ruler was complex, as it was composed of several titles and evolved over the centuries. The title of sultan was used continuously by all rulers almost from the beginning. However, because it was widespread in the Muslim world, the Ottomans quickly adopted variations of it to dissociate themselves from other Muslim rulers of lesser status. Murad I, the third Ottoman monarch, styled himself sultân-ı âzam (سلطان اعظم, the most exalted sultan) and hüdavendigar (خداوندگار, emperor), titles used by the Anatolian Seljuqs and the Mongol Ilkhanids respectively. His son Bayezid I adopted the style Sultan of Rûm, Rûm being an old Islamic name for the Roman Empire. The combining of the Islamic and Central Asian heritages of the Ottomans led to the adoption of the title that became the standard designation of the Ottoman ruler: Sultan [Name] Khan.[31] Ironically, although the title of sultan is most often associated in the Western world with the Ottomans, people within Turkey generally use the title of padishah far more frequently when referring to rulers of the Ottoman Dynasty.[32]
b1 2 3 : The Ottoman Caliphate symbolized their spiritual power, whereas the sultanate represented their temporal power. According to Ottoman historiography, Murad I adopted the title of caliph during his reign (1362 to 1389), and Selim I later strengthened the caliphal authority during his conquest of Egypt in 1516-1517. However, the general consensus among modern scholars is that Ottoman rulers had used the title of caliph before the conquest of Egypt, as early as during the reign of Murad I (1362–1389), who brought most of the Balkans under Ottoman rule and established the title of sultan in 1383. It is currently agreed that the caliphate "disappeared" for two-and-a-half centuries, before being revived with the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca, signed between the Ottoman Empire and Catherine II of Russia in 1774. The treaty was highly symbolic, since it marked the first international recognition of the Ottomans' claim to the caliphate. Although the treaty made official the Ottoman Empire's loss of the Crimean Khanate, it acknowledged the Ottoman caliph's continuing religious authority over Muslims in Russia.[33] From the 18th century onwards, Ottoman sultans increasingly emphasized their status as caliphs in order to stir Pan-Islamist sentiments among the empire's Muslims in the face of encroaching European imperialism. When World War I broke out, the sultan/caliph issued a call for jihad in 1914 against the Ottoman Empire's Allied enemies, unsuccessfully attempting to incite the subjects of the French, British and Russian empires to revolt. Abdul Hamid II was by far the Ottoman Sultan who made the most use of his caliphal position, and was recognized as Caliph by many Muslim heads of state, even as far away as Sumatra.[34] He had his claim to the title inserted into the 1876 Constitution (Article 4).[35]
c1 2 : Tughras were used by 35 out of 36 Ottoman sultans, starting with Orhan in the 14th century, whose tughra has been found on two different documents. No tughra bearing the name of Osman I, the founder of the empire, has ever been discovered,[36] although a coin with the inscription "Osman bin Ertuğrul" has been identified.[20] Abdulmejid II, the last Ottoman Caliph, also lacked a tughra of his own, since he did not serve as head of state (that position being held by Mustafa Kemal, President of the newly founded Republic of Turkey) but as a religious and royal figurehead.
d^ : The Ottoman Interregnum, also known as the Ottoman Triumvirate (Turkish: Fetret Devri), was a period of chaos in the Ottoman Empire which lasted from 1402 to 1413. It started following the defeat and capture of Bayezid I by the Turco-Mongol warlord Tamerlane at the Battle of Ankara, which was fought on 20 July 1402. Bayezid's sons fought each other for over a decade, until Mehmed I emerged as the undisputed victor in 1413.[37]
e^ : The dissolution of the Ottoman Empire was a gradual process which started with the abolition of the sultanate and ended with that of the caliphate 16 months later. The sultanate was formally abolished on 1 November 1922. Sultan Mehmed VI fled to Malta on 17 November aboard the British warship Malaya. This event marked the end of the Ottoman Dynasty, not of the Ottoman State nor of the Ottoman Caliphate. On 18 November, the Grand National Assembly (TBMM) elected Mehmed VI's cousin Abdulmejid II, the then crown prince, as caliph.[38] The official end of the Ottoman State was declared through the Treaty of Lausanne (24 July 1923), which recognized the new "Ankara government," and not the old Istanbul-based Ottoman government, as representing the rightful owner and successor state. The Republic of Turkey was proclaimed by the TBMM on 29 October 1923, with Mustafa Kemal as its first President.[39] Although Abdulmejid II was a figurehead lacking any political power, he remained in his position of Caliph until the office of the Caliphate was abolished by the TBMM on 3 March 1924.[35] Mehmed VI later tried unsuccessfully to reinstall himself as caliph in the Hejaz.[40]

References
  1. Stavrides 2001, p. 21
  2. Kafadar 1995, p. 122. "That they hailed from the Kayı branch of the Oğuz confederacy seems to be a creative "rediscovery" in the genealogical concoction of the fifteenth century. It is missing not only in Ahmedi but also, and more importantly, in the Yahşi Fakih-Aşıkpaşazade narrative, which gives its own version of an elaborate genealogical family tree going back to Noah. If there was a particularly significant claim to Kayı lineage, it is hard to imagine that Yahşi Fakih would not have heard of it."
    Lowry 2003, p. 78. "Based on these charters, all of which were drawn up between 1324 and 1360 (almost one hundred fifty years prior to the emergence of the Ottoman dynastic myth identifying them as members of the Kayı branch of the Oguz federation of Turkish tribes), we may posit that..."
    Lindner 1983, p. 10. "In fact, no matter how one were to try, the sources simply do not allow the recovery of a family tree linking the antecedents of Osman to the Kayı of the Oğuz tribe. Without a proven genealogy, or even without evidence of sufficient care to produce a single genealogy to be presented to all the court chroniclers, there obviously could be no tribe; thus, the tribe was not a factor in early Ottoman history."
  3. Glazer 1996, "War of Independence"
  4. Strauss 2010, pp. 21-51.
  5. Miller, William (1908). The Latins in the Levant: A History of Frankish Greece (1204–1566). London: John Murray. OCLC 563022439.
  6. Findley 2005, p. 115
  7. Glazer 1996, "Ottoman Institutions"
  8. Toynbee 1974, pp. 22–23
  9. Stavrides 2001, p. 20
  10. Quataert 2005, p. 93
  11. d'Osman Han 2001, "Ottoman Padishah Succession"
  12. Quataert 2005, p. 90
  13. Peirce, Leslie. "The sultanate of women". Channel 4. Archived from the original on 2007-12-03. Retrieved 2009-04-18.
  14. Glazer 1996, "External Threats and Internal Transformations"
  15. "Last heir to Ottoman throne passes away at 90". Daily Sabah. 19 January 2021.
  16. Quataert 2005, p. 91
  17. Quataert 2005, p. 92
  18. Karateke 2005, pp. 37–54
  19. Finkel 2007, p. 33.
  20. Kafadar 1995, pp. 60, 122.
  21. Lowry 2003, p. 153.
  22. Jorga 2009, p. 314.
  23. von Hammer, pp. 58-60.
  24. Prof. Yaşar Yüce-Prof. Ali Sevim: Türkiye tarihi Cilt II, AKDTYKTTK Yayınları, İstanbul, 1991 p 74-75
  25. Kafadar 1995, p. xix
  26. Turkish Language Association, (1960), Belleten, p. 467 (in Turkish)
  27. Ágoston, Gábor (2009). "Süleyman I". In Ágoston, Gábor; Masters, Bruce (eds.). Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire.
  28. Aşiroğlu 1992, p. 13
  29. Aşiroğlu 1992, p. 17
  30. Aşiroğlu 1992, p. 14
  31. Peirce 1993, pp. 158–159
  32. M'Gregor, J. (July 1854). "The Race, Religions, and Government of the Ottoman Empire". The Eclectic Magazine of Foreign Literature, Science, and Art. Vol. 32. New York: Leavitt, Trow, & Co. p. 376. OCLC 6298914. Retrieved 2009-04-25.
  33. Glassé 2003, pp. 349–351.
  34. Quataert 2005, pp. 83–85
  35. Toprak 1981, pp. 44–45
  36. Mensiz, Ercan. "About Tugra". Tugra.org. Archived from the original on 2007-10-25. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
  37. Sugar 1993, pp. 23–27
  38. Aşiroğlu 1992, p. 54
  39. Glazer 1996, "Table A. Chronology of Major Kemalist Reforms"
  40. Steffen, Dirk (2005). "Mehmed VI, Sultan". In Tucker, Spencer (ed.). World War I: Encyclopedia. Volume. Vol. III: M–R. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. p. 779. ISBN 978-1-85109-420-2. OCLC 162287003. Retrieved 2009-05-02.

Bibliography

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