Princely state

A princely state (also called native state or Indian state) was a nominally sovereign[1] entity of the British Indian Empire that was not directly governed by the British, but rather by an Indian ruler under a form of indirect rule,[2] subject to a subsidiary alliance and the suzerainty or paramountcy of the British crown.

There were officially 565 princely states when India and Pakistan became independent in 1947, but the great majority had contracted with the viceroy to provide public services and tax collection. Only 21 had actual state governments, and only four were large (Hyderabad State, Mysore State, Jammu and Kashmir State, and Baroda State). They acceded to one of the two new independent nations between 1947 and 1949. All the princes were eventually pensioned off.[3]

At the time of the British withdrawal, 565 princely states were officially recognised in the Indian subcontinent,[4] apart from thousands of zamindari estates and jagirs. In 1947, princely states covered 40% of the area of pre-independence India and constituted 23% of its population.[5] The most important states had their own British political residencies: Hyderabad of the Nizams, Mysore and Travancore in the South, followed by Jammu and Kashmir, and Sikkim in the Himalayas, and Indore in Central India. The most prominent among those – roughly a quarter of the total – had the status of a salute state, one whose ruler was entitled to a set number of gun salutes on ceremonial occasions.

The princely states varied greatly in status, size, and wealth; the premier 21-gun salute states of Hyderabad and Jammu and Kashmir were each over 200,000 km2 (77,000 sq mi) in size. In 1941, Hyderabad had a population of over 16 million, while Jammu and Kashmir had a population of slightly over 4 million. At the other end of the scale, the non-salute principality of Lawa covered an area of 49 km2 (19 sq mi), with a population of just below 3,000. Some two hundred of the lesser states even had an area of less than 25 km2 (10 sq mi).[6][7]

The era of the princely states effectively ended with Indian independence in 1947; by 1950, almost all of the principalities had acceded to either India or Pakistan.[8] The accession process was largely peaceful, except in the cases of Jammu and Kashmir (whose ruler decided to accede to India following an invasion by Pakistan-based forces, resulting in a long-standing dispute between the two countries),[9] Hyderabad State (whose ruler opted for independence in 1947, followed a year later by the invasion and annexation of the state by India), Junagarh and its vassal Bantva Manavadar (whose rulers acceded to Pakistan, but were annexed by India),[10] and Kalat (whose ruler declared independence in 1947, followed in 1948 by the state's accession to Pakistan).[11][12][13]

As per the terms of accession, the erstwhile Indian princes received privy purses (government allowances), and initially retained their statuses, privileges, and autonomy in internal matters during a transitional period which lasted until 1956. During this time, the former princely states were merged into unions, each of which was headed by a former ruling prince with the title of Rajpramukh (ruling chief), equivalent to a state governor.[14] In 1956, the position of Rajpramukh was abolished and the federations dissolved, the former principalities becoming part of Indian states. The states which acceded to Pakistan retained their status until the promulgation of a new constitution in 1956, when most became part of the province of West Pakistan; a few of the former states retained their autonomy until 1969 when they were fully integrated into Pakistan. The Indian government abolished the privy purses in 1971, followed by the government of Pakistan in 1972.

History

Though principalities and chiefdoms existed on the Indian subcontinent from at least the Iron Age, the history of princely states on the Indian subcontinent dates to at least the fifth or sixth century C.E., during the rise of the middle kingdoms of India following the collapse of the Gupta Empire.[15][16] Many of the future ruling clan groups – notably the Rajputs – began to emerge during this period; by the 13th–14th centuries, many of the Rajput clans had firmly established semi-independent principalities in the north-west, along with several in the north-east. The widespread expansion of Islam during this time brought many principalities into tributary relations with Islamic sultanates, notably with the Mughal Empire. In the south, however, the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire remained dominant until the mid-17th century; among its tributaries was the future Mysore Kingdom.

The Turco-Mongol Mughal Empire brought a majority of the existing Indian kingdoms and principalities under its suzerainty by the 17th century, beginning with its foundation in the early 16th century. Despite the difference in religion, the Mughal emperors also contracted a series of marriages with Rajput princesses, and Rajput forces and generals became an important part of their military power. The advent of Sikhism resulted in the creation of the Sikh Empire in the north by the early 18th century, by which time the Mughal Empire was in full decline. The Muslim nawabs had begun as appointed governors of territories conquered by the Mughals, in theory a non-hereditary title, with obligations to pay a large share of their revenues to the emperor. As the emperors became too weak to enforce their power, the nawabs stopped paying, and passed on their realms to their sons.

At the same time, the Marathas carved out their own states to form the Maratha Empire. Through the 18th century, former Mughal governors formed their own independent states. In the north-west, some of those – such as Tonk – allied themselves with various groups, including the Marathas and the Durrani Empire, itself formed in 1747 from a loose agglomeration of tribal chiefdoms that composed former Mughal territories. In the south, the principalities of Hyderabad and Arcot were fully established by the 1760s, though they nominally remained vassals of the Mughal emperor.

The largest Muslim-ruled state was Hyderabad State, which was also the first to sign a treaty with the British, in 1798, when it was caught between them and the Marathas. The treaties of 1817 and 1818 concluding the decisive Third Anglo-Maratha War left the remaining Maratha territories as princely states, with treaties with the British, and the Rajput states resumed their subordinate status, now with the British.

British relationship with the princely states

India under the British Raj (the "Indian Empire") consisted of two types of territory: British India and the native states or princely states. In its Interpretation Act 1889, the British Parliament adopted the following definitions:

(4.) The expression "British India" shall mean all territories and places within Her Majesty's dominions which are for the time being governed by Her Majesty through the Governor-General of India or through any governor or other officer subordinate to the Governor-General of India.
(5.) The expression "India" shall mean British India together with any territories of any native prince or chief under the suzerainty of Her Majesty exercised through the Governor-General of India, or through any governor or other officer subordinate to the Governor-General of India.[17]

In general the term "British India" had been used (and is still used) also to refer to the regions under the rule of the East India Company in India from 1774 to 1858.[18][19]

The British Crown's suzerainty over 175 princely states, generally the largest and most important, was exercised in the name of the British Crown by the central government of British India under the Viceroy; the remaining approximately 400 states were influenced by Agents answerable to the provincial governments of British India under a governor, lieutenant-governor, or chief commissioner.[20] A clear distinction between "dominion" and "suzerainty" was supplied by the jurisdiction of the courts of law: the law of British India rested upon the legislation enacted by the British Parliament, and the legislative powers those laws vested in the various governments of British India, both central and local; in contrast, the courts of the princely states existed under the authority of the respective rulers of those states.[20]

Princely status and titles

His Highness Sayajirao Gaekwad III Sena Khas Khel Shamsher Bahadur GCSI, GCIE, KIH (21-gun salute) – the Maratha Maharaja of Baroda

The Indian rulers bore various titles – including Chhatrapati (exclusively used by the three Bhonsle dynasty of the Marathas) ("emperor"), Maharaja or Raja ("king"), Sultan, Nawab, Emir, Raje, Nizam, Wadiyar (used only by the Maharajas of Mysore, meaning "lord"), Agniraj Maharaj for the rulers of Bhaddaiyan Raj, Chogyal, Nawab ("governor"), Nayak, Wāli, Inamdar,[21] Saranjamdar[22] and many others. Whatever the literal meaning and traditional prestige of the ruler's actual title, the British government translated them all as "prince", to avoid the implication that the native rulers could be "kings" with status equal to that of the British monarch.

An old image of the British Residency in the city of Quilon, Kerala

More prestigious Hindu rulers (mostly existing before the Mughal Empire, or having split from such old states) often used the title "Raja", Raje" or a variant such as Rai, Rana, "Rao", "Rawat" or Rawal. Also in this 'class' were several Thakurs or Thai ores and a few particular titles, such as Sardar, Mankari (or Mānkari/Maankari), Deshmukh, Sar Desai, Istamuradar, Saranjamdar, Raja Inamdar etc.

The most prestigious Hindu rulers usually had the prefix "maha" ("great", compare for example Grand Duke) in their titles, as in Maharaja, Maharana, Maharao, etc. This was used in many princely states, including Mewar, Travancore and Cochin. The state of Travancore also had queens regent styled Maharani, applied only to sister of king in Kerala.

There were also compound titles, such as (Maha)rajadhiraj, Raj-i-rajgan, often relics from an elaborate system of hierarchical titles under the Mughal emperors. For example, the addition of the adjective Bahadur raised the status of the titleholder one level.

Furthermore, most dynasties used a variety of additional titles, such as Varma in South India. This should not be confused with various titles and suffixes not specific to princes but used by entire (sub)castes. This is almost analogous to Singh title in North India.

The Sikh princes concentrated at Punjab usually adopted Hindu type titles when attaining princely rank; at a lower level Sardar was used.

Muslim rulers almost all used the title "Nawab" (the Arabic honorific of naib, "deputy", used of the Mughal governors, who became de facto autonomous with the decline of the Mughal Empire), with the prominent exceptions of the Nizam of Hyderabad & Berar, the Wāli/Khan of Kalat and the Wāli of Swat. Other less usual titles included Darbar Sahib, Dewan, Jam, Mehtar (unique to Chitral) and Mir (from Emir).

Precedence and prestige

However, the actual importance of a princely state cannot be read from the title of its ruler, which was usually granted (or at least recognised) as a favour, often in recognition for loyalty and services rendered to the Mughal Empire. Although some titles were raised once or even repeatedly, there was no automatic updating when a state gained or lost real power. In fact, princely titles were even awarded to holders of domains (mainly jagirs) and even taluqdars and zamindars, which were not states at all. Most of the zamindar who hold the princely titles were in fact erstwhile princely and royal states reduced to zamindari by the British EIC. Various sources give significantly different numbers of states and domains of the various types. Even in general, the definition of titles and domains are clearly not well-established.

An 1895 group photograph of the eleven-year-old Krishnaraja Wadiyar IV, ruler of the princely state of Mysore in South India, with his brothers and sisters. In 1799, his grandfather, then aged five, had been granted dominion of Mysore by the British and forced into a subsidiary alliance. The British later directly governed the state between 1831 and 1881.
The Govindgarh Palace of the Maharaja of Rewa. The palace which was built as a hunting lodge later became famous for the first white tigers that were found in the adjacent jungle and raised in the palace zoo.
The Nawab of Junagarh Bahadur Khan III (seated centre in an ornate chair) shown in an 1885 photograph with state officials and family.
Photograph (1900) of the Maharani of Sikkim. Sikkim was under the suzerainty of the Provincial government of Bengal; its ruler received a 15-gun salute.

In addition to their titles all princely rulers were eligible to be appointed to certain British orders of chivalry associated with India, the Most Exalted Order of the Star of India and the Most Eminent Order of the Indian Empire. Women could be appointed as "Knights" (instead of Dames) of these orders. Rulers entitled to 21-gun and 19-gun salutes were normally appointed to the highest rank, Knight Grand Commander of the Order of the Star of India.

Many Indian princes served in the British Army, the Indian Army, or in local guard or police forces, often rising to high ranks; some even served while on the throne. Many of these were appointed as an Aide de camp, either to the ruling prince of their own house (in the case of relatives of such rulers) or indeed to the British monarchs. Many saw active service, both on the subcontinent and on other fronts, during both World Wars.

Apart from those members of the princely houses who entered military service and who distinguished themselves, a good number of princes received honorary ranks as officers in the British and Indian Armed Forces. Those ranks were conferred based on several factors, including their heritage, lineage, gun-salute (or lack of one) as well as personal character or martial traditions. After the First and Second World Wars, the princely rulers of several of the major states, including Gwalior, Patiala, Nabha, Faridkort, Bikaner, Jaipur, Jodhpur, Jammu and Kashmir and Hyderabad, were given honorary general officer ranks as a result of their states' contributions to the war effort.

  • Lieutenant/Captain/Flight Lieutenant or Lieutenant-Commander/Major/Squadron Leader (for junior members of princely houses or for minor princes)
  • Commander/Lieutenant-Colonel/Wing Commander or Captain/Colonel/Group Captain (granted to princes of salute states, often to those entitled to 15-guns or more)
  • Commodore/Brigadier/Air Commodore (conferred upon princes of salute states entitled to gun salutes of 15-guns or more)
  • Major-General/Air Vice-Marshal (conferred upon princes of salute states entitled to 15-guns or more; conferred upon rulers of the major princely states, including Baroda, Kapurthala, Travancore, Bhopal and Mysore)
  • Lieutenant-General (conferred upon the rulers of the largest and most prominent princely houses after the First and Second World Wars for their states' contributions to the war effort.)
  • General (very rarely awarded; the Maharajas of Gwalior and Jammu & Kashmir were created honorary Generals in the British Army in 1877, the Maharaja of Bikaner was made one in 1937, and the Nizam of Hyderabad in 1941)

It was also not unusual for members of princely houses to be appointed to various colonial offices, often far from their native state, or to enter the diplomatic corps.

Salute states

HH Maharaja Sir Jayaji Rao Scindia of Gwalior State, General Sir Henry Daly (Founder of The Daly College), with British officers and Maratha nobility (Sardars, Jagirdars & Mankaris) in Indore, Holkar State, c.1879.

The gun salute system was used to set unambiguously the precedence of the major rulers in the area in which the British East India Company was active, or generally of the states and their dynasties. As heads of a state, certain princely rulers were entitled to be saluted by the firing of an odd number of guns between three and 21, with a greater number of guns indicating greater prestige. Generally, the number of guns remained the same for all successive rulers of a particular state, but individual princes were sometimes granted additional guns on a personal basis. Furthermore, rulers were sometimes granted additional gun salutes within their own territories only, constituting a semi-promotion. The states of all these rulers (about 120) were known as salute states.

After Indian Independence, the Maharana of Udaipur displaced the Nizam of Hyderabad as the most senior prince in India, because Hyderabad State had not acceded to the new Dominion of India, and the style Highness was extended to all rulers entitled to 9-gun salutes. When the princely states had been integrated into the Indian Union their rulers were promised continued privileges and an income (known as the Privy Purse) for their upkeep. Subsequently, when the Indian government abolished the Privy Purse in 1971, the whole princely order ceased to be recognised under Indian law, although many families continue to retain their social prestige informally; some descendants of the rulers are still prominent in regional or national politics, diplomacy, business and high society.

At the time of Indian independence, only five rulers – the Nizam of Hyderabad, the Maharaja of Mysore, the Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir state, the Maharaja Gaekwad of Baroda and the Maharaja Scindia of Gwalior – were entitled to a 21-gun salute. Six more – the Nawab of Bhopal, the Maharaja Holkar of Indore, the Maharaja of Bharatpur, the Maharana of Udaipur, the Maharaja of Kolhapur, the Maharaja of Patiala and the Maharaja of Travancore – were entitled to 19-gun salutes. The most senior princely ruler was the Nizam of Hyderabad, who was entitled to the unique style Exalted Highness and 21-gun salute.[23] Other princely rulers entitled to salutes of 11 guns (soon 9 guns too) or more were entitled to the style Highness. No special style was used by rulers entitled to lesser gun salutes.

As paramount ruler, and successor to the Mughals, the British King-Emperor of India, for whom the style of Majesty was reserved, was entitled to an 'imperial' 101-gun salute—in the European tradition also the number of guns fired to announce the birth of an heir (male) to the throne.

Non-salute states

There was no strict correlation between the levels of the titles and the classes of gun salutes, the real measure of precedence, but merely a growing percentage of higher titles in classes with more guns. As a rule the majority of gun-salute princes had at least nine, with numbers below that usually the prerogative of Arab Sheikhs of the Aden protectorate, also under British protection.

There were many so-called non-salute states of lower prestige. Since the total of salute states was 117 and there were more than 500 princely states, most rulers were not entitled to any gun salute. Not all of these were minor rulers – Surguja State, for example, was both larger and more populous than Karauli State, but the Maharaja of Karauli was entitled to a 17-gun salute and the Maharaja of Surguja was not entitled to any gun salute at all.

A number of princes, in the broadest sense of the term, were not even acknowledged as such. On the other hand, the dynasties of certain defunct states were allowed to keep their princely status – they were known as political pensioners, such as the Nawab of Oudh. There were also certain estates of British India which were rendered as political saranjams, having equal princely status.[24] Though none of these princes were awarded gun salutes, princely titles in this category were recognised as a form of vassals of salute states, and were not even in direct relation with the paramount power.

Largest princely states by area

Eleven largest princely states in terms of area
Name of princely stateArea in square milesPopulation in 1941Present StateTitle, ethnicity, and religion of rulerGun-salute for ruler
Jammu and Kashmir 84,471 4,021,616including Gilgit, Baltistan (Skardu), Ladakh, and Punch (mostly Muslim, with sizeable Hindu and Buddhist populations) Jammu and Kashmir Maharaja, Dogra, Hindu 21
 Hyderabad State 82,698 16,338,534(mostly Hindu with a sizeable Muslim minority) Telangana Nizam, Turkic, Sunni Muslim 21
Jodhpur State 36,071 2,125,000(mostly Hindu with a sizeable Muslim minority) Rajasthan Maharaja, Rathore, Hindu 17
 Kingdom of Mysore 29,458 7,328,896(Chiefly Hindu, with pockets of Muslim populations) Karnataka Wodeyar dynasty; Maharaja; Kannadiga; Hindu Kshattriya (Urs/Arasu in Kannada) 21
 Gwalior State 26,397 4,006,159(chiefly Hindu, with a sizeable Muslim population) Madhya Pradesh Maharaja, Maratha, Hindu 21
Bikaner State 23,317 936,218(chiefly Hindu, with a low Muslim minority) Rajasthan Maharaja, Rathore, Hindu 17
Bahawalpur State 17,726 1,341,209(Chiefly Muslim, with a sizeable Hindu, Sikh population) Punjab (Pakistan) Nawab Amir, Abbasid, Muslim 17
Jaisalmer State 16,100 76,255(Chiefly Hindu with a sizeable Muslim minority) Rajasthan Maharaja, Bhati, Hindu 15
Jaipur State 15,601 2,631,775(Chiefly Hindu, with a sizeable Muslim minority) Rajasthan Maharaja, Kachhwaha, Hindu 17
Bastar State 13,062 306,501(Chiefly Hindu, with a low Muslim minority) Chhattisgarh Maharaja, Kakatiya - Bhanj, HIndu -

Doctrine of lapse

A controversial aspect of East India Company rule was the doctrine of lapse, a policy under which lands whose feudal ruler died (or otherwise became unfit to rule) without a male biological heir (as opposed to an adopted son) would become directly controlled by the company and an adopted son would not become the ruler of the princely state. This policy went counter to Indian tradition where, unlike Europe, it was far more the accepted norm for a ruler to appoint his own heir.

The doctrine of lapse was pursued most vigorously by the Governor-General Sir James Ramsay, 10th Earl (later 1st Marquess) of Dalhousie. Dalhousie annexed seven states, including Awadh (Oudh), whose Nawabs he had accused of misrule, and the Maratha states of Nagpur, Jhansi, Satara, Sambalpur, and Thanjavur. Resentment over the annexation of these states turned to indignation when the heirlooms of the Maharajas of Nagpur were auctioned off in Calcutta. Dalhousie's actions contributed to the rising discontent amongst the upper castes which played a large part in the outbreak of the Indian mutiny of 1857. The last Mughal Badshah (emperor), whom many of the mutineers saw as a figurehead to rally around, was deposed following its suppression.

In response to the unpopularity of the doctrine, it was discontinued with the end of Company rule and the British Parliament's assumption of direct power over India.

Imperial governance

Photograph (1894) of the 19-year-old Shahaji II Bhonsle Maharajah of Kolhapur visiting the British resident and his staff at the Residency

By treaty, the British controlled the external affairs of the princely states absolutely. As the states were not British possessions, they retained control over their own internal affairs, subject to a degree of British influence which in many states was substantial.

By the beginning of the 20th century, relations between the British and the four largest states – Hyderabad, Mysore, Jammu and Kashmir, and Baroda – were directly under the control of the governor-general of India, in the person of a British resident. Two agencies, for Rajputana and Central India, oversaw twenty and 148 princely states respectively. The remaining princely states had their own British political officers, or Agents, who answered to the administrators of India's provinces. The agents of five princely states were then under the authority of Madras, 354 under Bombay, 26 of Bengal, two under Assam, 34 under Punjab, fifteen under the Central Provinces and Berar and two under the United Provinces.

Chamber of Princes meeting in March 1941

The Chamber of Princes (Narender Mandal or Narendra Mandal) was an institution established in 1920 by a royal proclamation of the King-Emperor to provide a forum in which the rulers could voice their needs and aspirations to the government. It survived until the end of the British Raj in 1947.[25]

By the early 1930s, most of the princely states whose agencies were under the authority of India's provinces were organised into new Agencies, answerable directly to the governor-general, on the model of the Central India and Rajputana agencies: the Eastern States Agency, Punjab States Agency, Baluchistan Agency, Deccan States Agency, Madras States Agency and the Northwest Frontier States Agency. The Baroda Residency was combined with the princely states of northern Bombay Presidency into the Baroda, Western India and Gujarat States Agency. Gwalior was separated from the Central India Agency and given its own Resident, and the states of Rampur and Benares, formerly with Agents under the authority of the United Provinces, were placed under the Gwalior Residency in 1936. The princely states of Sandur and Banganapalle in Mysore Presidency were transferred to the agency of the Mysore Resident in 1939.

Principal princely states in 1947

The native states in 1947 included five large states that were in "direct political relations" with the Government of India. For the complete list of princely states in 1947, see List of princely states of India.

In direct relations with the central government

Five large princely states in direct political relations with the Central Government in India[26][27][28][29]
Name of princely stateArea in square milesPopulation in 1941Approximate revenue of the state (in hundred thousand Rupees)Title, ethnicity, and religion of rulerGun-salute for rulerDesignation of local political officer
 Baroda State13,8663,343,477 (chiefly Hindu, with a sizeable Muslim population)323.26Maharaja, Maratha, Hindu21Resident at Baroda
 Hyderabad State82,69816,338,534 (mostly Hindu with a sizeable Muslim minority)1582.43Nizam, Turkic, Sunni Muslim21Resident in Hyderabad
Jammu and Kashmir84,4714,021,616 including Gilgit, Baltistan (Skardu), Ladakh, and Punch (mostly Muslim, with sizeable Hindu and Buddhist populations)463.95Maharaja, Dogra, Hindu21Resident in Jammu & Kashmir
 Kingdom of Mysore29,4587,328,896 (Chiefly Hindu, with sizeable Muslim populations)1001.38Wodeyar (means Owner in Kannada) and Maharaja, Kannadiga, Hindu21Resident in Mysore
 Gwalior State26,3974,006,159 (chiefly Hindu, with a sizeable Muslim population)356.75Maharaja, Maratha, Hindu21Resident at Gwalior
Total236,89035,038,6823727.77

Central India Agency, Gwalior Residency, Baluchistan Agency, Rajputana Agency, Eastern States Agency

88 princely states forming the Central India Agency[30][31]
Name of princely stateArea in square milesPopulation in 1941Approximate revenue of the state (in hundred thousand Rupees)Title, ethnicity, and religion of rulerGun-salute for rulerDesignation of local political officer
Indore State9,3411,513,966 (chiefly Hindu, with a sizeable Muslim population)304.9Maharaja, Maratha, Hindu19 (plus 2 local)Resident at Indore
Bhopal6,924785,322 (chiefly Hindu, with a sizeable Muslim population)119.82Nawab(m)/Begum(f), Afghan, Muslim19 (plus 2 local)Political Agent in Bhopal
Rewah13,0001,820,445 (chiefly Hindu, with a sizeable Muslim population)65Maharaja, Baghel Rajput, Hindu17Second largest state in Baghelkhand
85 smaller and minor states (1941)22,995 (1901)2.74 million (Chiefly Hindu, 1901)129 (1901)
Total77,395 (1901)8.51 million (1901)421 (1901)
42 princely states forming the Eastern States Agency[30][32]
Name of princely stateArea in square milesPopulation in 1941Approximate revenue of the state (in hundred thousand Rupees)Title, ethnicity, and religion of rulerGun-salute for rulerDesignation of local political officer
Cooch Behar1,318639,898 (chiefly Hindu and Muslim)91Maharaja, Koch (Kshattriya), Brahmo13Resident for the Eastern States
Tripura State4,116513,010 (chiefly Vaishnavite, with a sizeable Sanamahi minority)54Maharaja, Tripuri, Vaishnavite (Kshattriya)13Resident for the Eastern States
Mayurbhanj State4,243990,977 (chiefly Hindu)49Maharaja, Kshattriya, Hindu9Resident for the Eastern States
39 smaller and minor states (1941)56,2536,641,991241.31
Total65,9308,785,876435.31

Gwalior Residency (two states)

Two states under the suzerainty of the Resident at Gwalior, Gwalior having direct relations with the central government.[26][33]
Name of princely stateArea in square milesPopulation in 1941Approximate revenue of the state (in hundred thousand Rupees)Title, ethnicity, and religion of rulerGun-salute for rulerDesignation of local political officer
Rampur893464,919 (chiefly Hindu and Muslim, in 1931)51Nawab, Pathan, Muslim15Political Agent at Rampur
Benares State875391,165 (chiefly Hindu, 1931)19Maharaja, Bhumihar, Hindu13 (plus 2 local)Political Agent at Benares
Total1,768856,084 (1941, approx.)70
23 princely states forming the Rajputana Agency, with the Resident for Rajputana at Abu[34][35]
Name of princely stateArea in square milesPopulation in 1941Approximate revenue of the state (in hundred thousand Rupees)Title, ethnicity, and religion of rulerGun-salute for rulerDesignation of local political officer
Udaipur (Mewar)13,1701,926,698 (chiefly Hindu and Bhil)107Maharana, Sisodia Rajput, Hindu19 (plus 2 personal)Political Agent for the Mewar and Southern Rajputana States
Jaipur15,6103,040,876 (chiefly Hindu)188.6Maharaja, Kachwaha Rajput, Hindu17 (plus 2 personal)Political Agent at Jaipur
Jodhpur (Marwar)36,1202,555,904 (chiefly Hindu)208.65Maharaja, Rathor Rajput, Hindu17Political Agent for the Western States of Rajputana
Bikaner23,1811,292,938 (chiefly Hindu)185.5Maharaja, Rathor Rajput, Hindu17Political agent for the Western States of Rajputana
17 salute states, 1 chiefship, 1 zamindari42,3743.64 million (chiefly Hindu, 1901)155 (1901)
Total128,918 (1901)9.84 million (1901)320 (1901)
Three princely states forming the Baluchistan Agency[36][37]
Name of princely stateArea in square milesPopulation in 1941Approximate revenue of the state (in hundred thousand Rupees)Title, ethnicity, and religion of rulerGun-salute for rulerDesignation of local political officer
Kalat73,278250,211 (chiefly Sunni Muslim)21.3Khan or Wali, Baloch, Sunni Muslim19Political Agent in Kalat
Las Bela7,13268,972 (chiefly Sunni Muslim)6.1Jam, Baloch, Sunni MuslimPolitical Agent in Kalat
Kharan14,21033,763 (chiefly Sunni Muslim)2Nawab, Baloch, Sunni MuslimPolitical Agent in Kalat
Total94,620352,94629.4
Sikkim, as a protectorate of the British Government[38]
Name of princely stateArea in square milesPopulation in 1941Approximate revenue of the state (in hundred thousand Rupees)Title, ethnicity, and religion of rulerGun-salute for rulerDesignation of local political officer
Sikkim2,818121,520 (chiefly Buddhist and Hindu)5Chogyal, Tibetan, Buddhist15Political Officer, Sikkim

Other states under provincial governments

Madras (5 States)

5 states under the suzerainty of the Provincial Government of Madras[36]
Name of princely stateArea in square milesPopulation in 1901Approximate revenue of the state (in hundred thousand) RupeesTitle, ethnicity, and religion of rulerGun-salute for rulerDesignation of local political officer
Travancore7,0912,952,157 (chiefly Hindu and Christian)100Maharaja, Kshatriya-Samanthan, Hindu21 (including two guns personal to the then ruler)Resident in Travancore and Cochin
Cochin1,362812,025 (chiefly Hindu and Christian)27Raja, Samanta-Kshatriya, Hindu17Resident in Travancore and Cochin
Pudukkottai1,100380,440 (chiefly Hindu)11Raja, Kallar, Hindu11Collector of Trichinopoly (ex officio Political Agent)
2 minor states (Banganapalle and Sandur)41643,4643
Total9,9694,188,086141

Bombay (354 States)

354 states under the suzerainty of the Provincial Government of Bombay[39]
Name of princely stateArea in square milesPopulation in 1901Approximate revenue of the state (in hundred thousand Rupees)Title, ethnicity, and religion of rulerGun-salute for rulerDesignation of local political officer
Kolhapur2,855910,011 (chiefly Hindus)48Maharaja,"Chhtrapati "Maratha, Hindu19Political Agent for Kolhapur
Cutch7,616488,022 (chiefly Hindu)20Maharao, Jadeja Rajput, Hindu17Political Agent in Cutch
Junagarh3,284395,428 (chiefly Hindu)27Nawab, Pathan, Muslim11Agent to the Governor in Kathiawar
Navanagar3,791336,779 (chiefly Hindu)31Jam Sahib, Jadeja Rajput, Hindu11Agent to the Governor in Kathiawar
349 other states42,1654,579,095281
Total65,7616,908,648420

Central Provinces (15 States)

15 states under the suzerainty of the Provincial Government of the Central Provinces[40]
Name of princely stateArea in square milesPopulation in 1901Approximate revenue of the state (in hundred thousand Rupees)Title, ethnicity, and religion of rulerGun-salute for rulerDesignation of local political officer
Kalahandi3,745284,465 (chiefly Hindu)4Raja, Kshatriya, Hindu9Political Agent for the Chhattisgarh Feudatories
Bastar13,062306,501 (chiefly Animist)3Raja, Kshatriya, HinduPolitical Agent for the Chhattisgarh Feudatories
13 other states12,6281,339,353 (chiefly Hindu)1611
Total29,4351,996,38321

Punjab (45 States)

45 states under the suzerainty of the Provincial Government of the Punjab[41][42]
Name of princely stateArea in square milesPopulation in 1941Approximate revenue of the state (in hundred thousand Rupees)Title, ethnicity, and religion of rulerGun-salute for rulerDesignation of local political officer
Bahawalpur16,4341,341,209 (chiefly Muslim)335Nawab, Daudputra, Muslim17Political Agent for Phulkian States and Bahawalpur
Patiala5,9421,936,259 (chiefly Sikh)302.6Maharaja, Sikh17 (and 2 personal)Political Agent for Phulkian States and Bahawalpur
Nabha947340,044 (chiefly Sikh)38.7Maharaja, Sikh13 (and 2 local)Political Agent for Phulkian States and Bahawalpur
Jind1,299361,812 (chiefly and Sikh)37.4Maharaja, Sikh13 (and 2 personal)Political Agent for Phulkian States and Bahawalpur
Kapurthala645378,380 (chiefly Sikh)40.5Maharaja, Ahuluwalia, Sikh13 (and 2 personal)Commissioner of the Jullundur Division (ex officio Political Agent)
Faridkot638199,283 (Sikh)22.7Raja, Sikh11Commissioner of the Jullundur Division (ex officio Political Agent)
Tehri (Garhwal)4,500397,369 (chiefly Hindu)26.9Maharaja, Rajput Hindu11Commissioner of Kumaun (ex officio Political Agent)
Khairpur6,050305,387 (chiefly Muslim)15 (plus 2 local)Mir, Talpur Baloch, Muslim37.8Political Agent for Khairpur
25 other states12,661 (in 1901)1,087,614 (in 1901)30 (in 1901)
Total36,532 (in 1901)4,424,398 (in 1901)155 (in 1901)

Assam (26 states)

26 states under the suzerainty of the Provincial Government of Assam[43][44]
Name of princely stateArea in square milesPopulation in 1941Approximate revenue of the state (in hundred thousand Rupees)Title, ethnicity, and religion of rulerGun-salute for rulerDesignation of local political officer
Manipur8,638512,069 (chiefly Hindu and Animist)19Raja, Kshatriya, Hindu11Political Agent in Manipur
25 Khasi States3,778213,586 (Khasi and Christian)~1 (1941, approx.)Deputy Commissioner, Khasi and Jaintia Hills
Total12,416725,65520 (1941; approx.)

Burma

Burma (52 states)
52 states in Burma: all except Kantarawadi, one of the Karenni States, were included in British India until 1937[45]
Name of princely stateArea in square milesPopulation in 1901Approximate revenue of the state (in hundred thousand Rupees)Title, ethnicity, and religion of rulerGun-salute for rulerDesignation of local political officer
Hsipaw (Thibaw)5,086105,000 (Buddhist)3Sawbwa, Shan, Buddhist9Superintendent, Northern Shan States
Kengtung12,000190,000 (Buddhist)1Sawbwa, Shan, Buddhist9Superintendent Southern Shan States
Yawnghwe86595,339 (Buddhist)2.13Sawbwa, Shan, Buddhist9Superintendent Southern Shan States
Mongnai2,71744,000 (Buddhist)0.5Sawbwa, Shan, BuddhistSuperintendent Southern Shan States
5 Karenni States3,13045,795 (Buddhist and Animist)0.035Sawbwa, Karenni, BuddhistSuperintendent Southern Shan States
44 other states42,198792,152 (Buddhist and Animist)8.5
Total67,0111,177,98713.5

State military forces

The armies of the Native States were bound by many restrictions that were imposed by subsidiary alliances. They existed mainly for ceremonial use and for internal policing, although certain units designated as Imperial Service Troops, were available for service alongside the regular Indian Army upon request by the British government.[46]

According to the Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV 1907, p. 85,

Since a chief can neither attack his neighbour nor fall out with a foreign nation, it follows that he needs no military establishment which is not required either for police purposes or personal display, or for cooperation with the Imperial Government. The treaty made with Gwalior in 1844, and the instrument of transfer given to Mysore in 1881, alike base the restriction of the forces of the State upon the broad ground of protection. The former explained in detail that unnecessary armies were embarrassing to the State itself and the cause of disquietude to others: a few months later a striking proof of this was afforded by the army of the Sikh kingdom of Lahore. The British Government has undertaken to protect the dominions of the Native princes from invasion and even from rebellion within: its army is organised for the defence not merely of British India, but of all the possessions under the suzerainty of the King-Emperor.[47]

In addition, other restrictions were imposed:

The treaties with most of the larger States are clear on this point. Posts in the interior must not be fortified, factories for the production of guns and ammunition must not be constructed, nor may the subject of other States be enlisted in the local forces. ... They must allow the forces that defend them to obtain local supplies, to occupy cantonments or positions, and to arrest deserters; and in addition to these services they must recognise the Imperial control of the railways, telegraphs, and postal communications as essential not only to the common welfare but to the common defence.[48]

The Imperial Service Troops were routinely inspected by British army officers and generally had the same equipment as soldiers in the British Indian Army.[49] Although their numbers were relatively small, the Imperial Service Troops were employed in China and British Somaliland in the first decade of the 20th century, and later saw action in the First World War and Second World War .[49]

Political integration of princely states in 1947 and after

India

At the time of Indian independence on 15 August 1947, India was divided into two sets of territories, the first being the territories of "British India", which were under the direct control of the India Office in London and the governor-general of India, and the second being the "princely states", the territories over which the Crown had suzerainty, but which were under the control of their hereditary rulers. In addition, there were several colonial enclaves controlled by France and Portugal. The integration of these territories into Dominion of India, that had been created by the Indian Independence Act 1947 by the British Parliament, was a declared objective of the Indian National Congress, which the Government of India pursued over the years 1947 to 1949. Through a combination of tactics, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel and V. P. Menon in the months immediately preceding and following the independence convinced the rulers of almost all of the hundreds of princely states to accede to India. In a speech in January 1948, Vallabhbhai Patel said:

As you are all aware, on the lapse of Paramountcy every Indian State became a separate independent entity and our first task of consolidating about 550 States was on the basis of accession to the Indian Dominion on three subjects. Barring Hyderabad and Junagadh all the states which are contiguous to India acceded to Indian Dominion. Subsequently, Kashmir also came in... Some Rulers who were quick to read the writing on the wall, gave responsible government to their people; Cochin being the most illustrious example. In Travancore, there was a short struggle, but there, too, the Ruler soon recognised the aspiration of his people and agreed to introduce a constitution in which all powers would be transferred to the people and he would function as a constitutional Ruler.[50]

Although this process successfully integrated the vast majority of princely states into India, it was not as successful in relation to a few states, notably the former princely state of Kashmir, whose Maharaja delayed signing the instrument of accession into India until his territories were under the threat of invasion by Pakistan, and the state of Hyderabad, whose ruler decided to remain independent and was subsequently defeated by the Operation Polo invasion.

Having secured their accession, Sardar Patel and V. P. Menon then proceeded, in a step-by-step process, to secure and extend the central government's authority over these states and to transform their administrations until, by 1956, there was little difference between the territories that had formerly been part of British India and those that had been princely states. Simultaneously, the Government of India, through a combination of diplomatic and economic pressure, acquired control over most of the remaining European colonial exclaves on the subcontinent. Fed up with the protracted and stubborn resistance of the Portuguese government; in 1961 the Indian Army invaded and annexed Portuguese India.[51] These territories, like the princely states, were also integrated into the Republic of India.

As the final step, in 1971, the 26th amendment[52] to the Constitution of India withdrew recognition of the princes as rulers, took away their remaining privileges, and abolished the remuneration granted to them by privy purses. In 2012, the High Court of Kerala in a judgement on Mujeeba Rahman vs the State Of Kerala stated that, 'though by the 26th amendment of the Constitution, Article 363 was repealed whereby the rights and privileges of the rulers of Indian States were taken away, still the name and title of the rulers remained as such and unaffected in so far as names and titles were not contemplated as rights or privileges under the repealed Articles 291 and 362 of the Constitution.' So the titles were not abolished by the government; only their political powers and right to receive Privy Purse were cancelled.[53][54]

Pakistan

During the period of the British Raj, there were four princely states in Balochistan: Makran, Kharan, Las Bela and Kalat. The first three acceded to Pakistan.[55][56][57][58] However, the ruler of the fourth princely state, the Khan of Kalat Ahmad Yar Khan, declared Kalat's independence as this was one of the options given to all princely states.[59] The state remained independent until it was acceded on 27 March 1948. The signing of the Instrument of Accession by Ahmad Yar Khan, led his brother, Prince Abdul Karim, to revolt against his brother's decision in July 1948, causing an ongoing and still unresolved insurgency.[60]

Bahawalpur from the Punjab Agency joined Pakistan on 5 October 1947. The princely states of the North-West Frontier States Agencies. included the Dir Swat and Chitral Agency and the Deputy Commissioner of Hazara acting as the Political Agent for Amb and Phulra. These states joined Pakistan on independence from the British.

See also

  • Flags of Indian princely states
  • Political integration of India
  • List of princely states of British India (by region)
  • List of Indian monarchs
  • Praja Mandal
  • Salute state
  • Indian feudalism
  • Indian honorifics
  • Ghatwals and Mulraiyats
  • Jagirdar
  • List of Maratha dynasties and states
  • List of Rajput dynasties and states
  • Maratha Empire
  • Maratha titles
  • Oudh Bequest
  • Rajputana
  • Zamindar
  • Vorstenlanden, princely states in the Netherlands Indies


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Gazetteers

  • Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. II (1908), The Indian Empire, Historical, Published under the authority of His Majesty's Secretary of State for India in Council, Oxford at the Clarendon Press. Pp. xxxv, 1 map, 573. online
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