Evidence of Evolution
The evidence for evolution is compelling and extensive. Looking at every level of organization in living systems, biologists see the signature of past and present evolution. Darwin dedicated a large portion of his book, On the Origin of Species, to identifying patterns in nature that were consistent with evolution. Since Darwin, our understanding has become clearer and broader.
Fossils, Anatomy, and Embryology
Fossils provide solid evidence that organisms from the past are not the same as those found today; they show a progression of evolution. Scientists calculate the age of fossils and categorize them to determine when the organisms lived relative to each other. The resulting fossil record tells the story of the past and shows the evolution of form over millions of years. For example, scientists have recovered highly-detailed records showing the evolution of humans and horses . The whale flipper shares a similar morphology to appendages of birds and mammals, indicating that these species share a common ancestor . Over time, evolution led to changes in the shapes and sizes of these bones in different species, but they have maintained the same overall layout. Scientists call these synonymous parts homologous structures.
Common Ancestors
The similar construction of these appendages indicates that these organisms share a common ancestor.
Evolution of Humans and Horses
(a) In this display, fossil hominids are arranged from oldest (bottom) to newest (top). As hominids evolved, the shape of the skull changed. (b) An artist's rendition of extinct species of the genus Equus reveals that these ancient species resembled the modern horse (Equus ferus), but varied in size.
Some structures exist in organisms that have no apparent function at all, appearing to be residual parts from a common ancestor. These unused structures (such as wings on flightless birds, leaves on some cacti, and hind leg bones in whales) are vestigial.
Embryology, the study of the development of the anatomy of an organism to its adult form, provides evidence for evolution as embryo formation in widely-divergent groups of organisms tends to be conserved. Structures that are absent in the adults of some groups often appear in their embryonic forms, disappearing by the time the adult or juvenile form is reached. For example, all vertebrate embryos, including humans, exhibit gill slits and tails at some point in their early development. These disappear in the adults of terrestrial groups, but are maintained in adults of aquatic groups, such as fish and some amphibians. Great ape embryos, including humans, have a tail structure during their development that is lost by birth.
Another form of evidence of evolution is the convergence of form in organisms that share similar environments. For example, species of unrelated animals, such as the arctic fox and ptarmigan living in the arctic region, have been selected for seasonal white phenotypes during winter to blend with the snow and ice . These similarities occur not because of common ancestry, but because of similar selection pressures: the benefits of not being seen by predators.
Adaptations: Winter Coats
The white winter coat of the (a) arctic fox and the (b) ptarmigan's plumage are adaptations to their environments.
Biogeography
The geographic distribution of organisms on the planet follows patterns that are best explained by evolution in conjunction with the movement of tectonic plates over geological time. Broad groups that evolved before the breakup of the supercontinent Pangaea (about 200 million years ago) are distributed worldwide. Groups that evolved since the breakup appear uniquely in regions of the planet, such as the unique flora and fauna of northern continents that formed from the supercontinent Laurasia compared to that of the southern continents that formed from the supercontinent Gondwana.
The great diversification of marsupials in Australia and the absence of other mammals reflect Australia's long isolation. Australia has an abundance of endemic species (those found nowhere else) which is typical of islands whose isolation by expanses of water prevents species from migrating. Over time, these species diverge evolutionarily into new species that look very different from their ancestors that may exist on the mainland. The marsupials of Australia, the finches on the Galápagos, and many species on the Hawaiian Islands are all unique to their one point of origin, yet they display distant relationships to ancestral species on mainlands.
Molecular Biology
Like anatomical structures, the structures of the molecules of life reflect descent with modification. Evidence of a common ancestor for all of life is reflected in the universality of DNA as the genetic material, in the near universality of the genetic code, and in the machinery of DNA replication and expression. In general, the relatedness of groups of organisms is reflected in the similarity of their DNA sequences. This is exactly the pattern that would be expected from descent and diversification from a common ancestor.
DNA sequences have also shed light on some of the mechanisms of evolution. For example, it is clear that the evolution of new functions for proteins commonly occurs after gene duplications that allow the free modification of one copy by mutation, selection, or drift (changes in a population's gene pool resulting from chance), while the second copy continues to produce a functional protein.