logical fallacy

Examples of logical fallacy in the following topics:

• Correlation is Not Causation

  • As with any logical fallacy, identifying that the reasoning behind an argument is flawed does not imply that the resulting conclusion is false.
  • The cum hoc ergo propter hoc logical fallacy can be expressed as follows:
  • In this type of logical fallacy, one makes a premature conclusion about causality after observing only a correlation between two or more factors.
  • This is a logical fallacy because there are at least five possibilities:
  • While well-established, this relationship is still susceptible to logical fallacy due to the complexity of the system.

• Logical Fallacies

  • A fallacy is an error in reasoning; there are two basic categories of fallacies--formal and informal.
  • A fallacy is an error in reasoning.
  • By applying formal logic to the syllogism in the example, the conclusion is still valid.
  • In informal logic and rhetoric, a fallacy is usually an error in reasoning often due to a misconception or a presumption.
  • Some of the more frequent common logical fallacies are:

• Defining Emotional Appeal

  • An emotional appeal is directed to sway an audience member's emotions and uses the manipulation of the recipient's emotions rather than valid logic to win an argument.
  • An emotional appeal uses emotions as the basis of an argument's position without factual evidence that logically supports the major ideas endorsed by the presenter.
  • Emotional appeal is a logical fallacy, whereby a debater attempts to win an argument by trying to get an emotional reaction from the opponent and audience.
  • In debating terms, emotional appeals are often effective as a rhetorical device, but are generally considered naive or dishonest as a logical argument, since they often appeal to the prejudices of listeners rather than offer a sober assessment of a situation.
  • As with children, cute animals override most people's logic.

• Does the Difference Prove the Point?

  • The phrase "accept the null hypothesis" may suggest it has been proved simply because it has not been disproved, a logical fallacy known as the argument from ignorance.
  • Hypothesis testing emphasizes the rejection which is based on a probability rather than the acceptance which requires extra steps of logic.

• Arguing with Evidence and Warrants

  • The former would depend primarily on hard data that supports its conclusions; the latter would emphasize the rigorousness of its logic.
  • If your warrant is not good, you may find yourself accused of committing a logical fallacy.
  • To fix the situation, clarify your warrant and make the logical connection stronger.
  • As a logical statement, this leaves a lot to be desired.
  • You will need to make them believe that the connection you describe is a logical one.

• Cognitive Biases

  • Managers must be aware of their own logical and perceptive fallacies and the biases of others.
  • In this situation, they believe that their confidence in their decision is founded on a rational and logical assessment of the facts when it is not.

• External Benefits: Influence the World Around You

  • The same logic exists in public speaking situations.
  • Trained speakers know how to recognize sound logic, reasoning, and ethical appeals.
  • A critical listener is less likely to be persuaded by unsound logic and fallacies or to take action that is not in his or her best interest.

• The Regression Fallacy

  • The regression fallacy fails to account for natural fluctuations and rather ascribes cause where none exists.
  • The regression (or regressive) fallacy is an informal fallacy.
  • It is frequently a special kind of the post hoc fallacy.
  • The logical flaw is to make predictions that expect exceptional results to continue as if they were average.
  • Assuming the pain relief was caused by the doctor is fallacious.

• The Collins Case

  • The Collins' case is a prime example of a phenomenon known as the prosecutor's fallacy—a fallacy of statistical reasoning when used as an argument in legal proceedings.
  • At its heart, the fallacy involves assuming that the prior probability of a random match is equal to the probability that the defendant is innocent.
  • For example, if a perpetrator is known to have the same blood type as a defendant (and 10% of the population share that blood type), to argue solely on that basis that the probability of the defendant being guilty is 90% makes the prosecutors's fallacy (in a very simple form).
  • The basic fallacy results from misunderstanding conditional probability, and neglecting the prior odds of a defendant being guilty before that evidence was introduced.
  • The Collins case is a classic example of the prosecutor's fallacy.

• Ecological Fallacy

  • An ecological fallacy is an interpretation of statistical data where inferences about individuals are deduced from inferences about the group as a whole.
  • Ecological fallacy can refer to the following statistical fallacy: the correlation between individual variables is deduced from the correlation of the variables collected for the group to which those individuals belong.
  • Ecological fallacy can also refer to the following fallacy: the average for a group is approximated by the average in the total population divided by the group size.
  • A striking ecological fallacy is Simpson's paradox, diagramed in .
  • Discuss ecological fallacy in terms of aggregate versus individual inference and give specific examples of its occurrence.