Federal Forts Around Charleston Harbor
The Battle of Fort Sumter was the first battle of the American Civil War. Sumter was an imposing facility, designed to be one of the world's strongest fortresses. By the fall of 1860, its construction was almost complete. The fort was not garrisoned, housing only a single soldier, who functioned as a lighthouse keeper, and a small party of civilian construction workers. After seceding from the United States, Southern states began seizing federal property in the South. By 1861, Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor was one of two federal possessions remaining in Southern territory. South Carolina demanded that the U.S. federal government abandon its facilities in Charleston Harbor. Under the cover of darkness on December 26, six days after South Carolina declared its secession, Major Robert Anderson received orders from the federal government to abandon the indefensible Fort Moultrie and relocate his command to Fort Sumter.
Conditions at the fort were difficult during the winter of 1860–1861. Rations were short and fuel for heat was limited. Because the garrison's supplies were limited, President James Buchanan authorized a relief expedition for supplies, small arms, and 200 soldiers. To appear less provocative, federal supplies were sent on an unarmed civilian merchant ship, Star of the West. On January 9, 1861, as the Star of the West approached Charleston Harbor, batteries at Morris Island and Fort Moultrie opened fire, forcing it to withdraw. Major Anderson, unaware of the Star's approach, declined to fire on the Confederate batteries.
The Fort Sumter crisis was waiting for President Lincoln upon his inauguration on March 4, 1861. He received news that Fort Sumter had only six weeks of rations left. Lincoln and his new cabinet were thus faced with the decision of reinforcing or evacuating Sumter. Lincoln decided to continue to reinforce the fort and demand the Confederates cease contact with it.
The South sent delegations to Washington, D.C., and offered to pay for the federal properties and enter into a peace treaty with the United States. Lincoln rejected any negotiations with the Confederate agents because he did not consider the Confederacy a legitimate nation, and making any treaty with it would be tantamount to recognition of it as a sovereign government. However, Secretary of State William H. Seward, who wished to give up Sumter as a gesture of goodwill, engaged in unauthorized and indirect negotiations that failed.
Having received notification from Lincoln, Governor Pickens consulted with General Beauregard. President of the Confederacy Jefferson Davis ordered Beauregard to repeat the demand for Sumter's surrender and authorized the use of force to complete surrender before the relief expedition arrived. The Confederate cabinet endorsed Davis's order on April 9. Only Secretary of State Robert Toombs opposed out of concern for appearing as the aggressor and alienating undecided parties.
Preparations for the Attack
On March 1, President Davis appointed Brigadier General P.G.T. Beauregard to command South Carolinian forces in Charleston. Beauregard was an expert in siege operations and believed a siege of Fort Sumter might soon be required. Ironically, Major Anderson was a particularly close friend of Beauregard’s and previously served as his artillery instructor at West Point. Beauregard, in turn, had served as Major Anderson's assistant in the Mexican-American War.
On April 4, as Fort Sumter's lack of supplies became critical, President Lincoln ordered the delivery of relief supplies. The relief expedition was to be led by Gustavus V. Fox (future assistant secretary of the navy) and involve the landing of small vessels at Fort Sumter under the cover of night.
Fort Sumter Attack
On Friday, April 12, 1861, at 4:30 a.m., Confederate batteries opened fire, firing for 34 straight hours on the fort. No attempt was made to return the fire for more than two hours. The fort's supply of ammunition was not suited for the task; in addition, there were no fuses for explosive shells. Only solid balls could be used against the rebel batteries. At about 7:00 a.m., Captain Abner Doubleday, the fort's second in command, was given the honor of firing the first shot in defense of the fort. The shot was ineffective, in part because Major Anderson did not use the guns mounted on the highest tier where the gun detachments would be more exposed to Confederate fire. The firing continued all day. The Union fired slowly to conserve ammunition. At night the fire from the fort stopped, but the Confederates still lobbed an occasional shell at Sumter. On Saturday, April 13, the fort was surrendered and evacuated by the Union. During the attack, the Union colors fell.
The following day, President Lincoln formally declared that the Confederate states were in a state of rebellion.