Charles’ law

Examples of Charles’ law in the following topics:

• Charles' and Gay-Lussac's Law: Temperature and Volume

  • Charles' and Gay-Lussac's Law states that at constant pressure, temperature and volume are directly proportional.
  • Charles' Law describes the relationship between the volume and temperature of a gas.
  • The law was first published by Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac in 1802, but he referenced unpublished work by Jacques Charles from around 1787.
  • This extrapolation of Charles' Law was the first evidence of the significance of this temperature.
  • Discusses the relationship between volume and temperature of a gas, and explains how to solve problems using Charles' Law.

• Equations of State

  • The ideal gas law is the equation of state of a hypothetical ideal gas (an illustration is offered in ).
  • It was first stated by Émile Clapeyron in 1834 as a combination of Boyle's law and Charles' law.
  • Boyle's law states that pressure P and volume V of a given mass of confined gas are inversely proportional:
  • while Charles' law states that volume of a gas is proportional to the absolute temperature T of the gas at constant pressure
  • Therefore, we derive a microscopic version of the ideal gas law

• Charles I and the Power to Tax

  • To cope with the ongoing war situation, Charles had introduced martial law to large swathes of the country and in 1627 to the entire nation.
  • Crucially, martial law as then understood was not a form of substantive law, but instead a suspension of the rule of law.
  • It was the replacement of normal statutes with a law based on the whims of the local military commander.
  • On June 7, Charles capitulated and accepted the Petition.  
  • It also restricted the use of martial law except in war or direct rebellion and prohibiting the formation of commissions.

• Restoration of the Stuarts

  • Over a decade after Charles I's 1649 execution and Charles II's 1651 escape to mainland Europe, the Stuarts were restored to the English throne by Royalists in the aftermath of the slow fall of the Protectorate.  
  • On May 8, it proclaimed that King Charles II had been the lawful monarch since the execution of Charles I on January 30, 1649.
  • Charles entered London on May 29, his birthday.
  • The Indemnity and Oblivion Act, which became law in August 1660, pardoned all past treason against the crown, but specifically excluded those involved in the trial and execution of Charles I. 31 of the 59 commissioners (judges) who had signed the death warrant in 1649 were living.
  • King Charles II, the first monarch to rule after the English Restoration.

• Cromwell and the Roundheads

  • Known as the Long Parliament, it proved even more hostile to Charles than its predecessor and passed a law which stated that a new Parliament should convene at least once every three years—without the King's summons, if necessary.
  • Other laws passed by the Parliament made it illegal for the king to impose taxes without Parliamentary consent and later gave Parliament control over the king's ministers.
  • Finally, the Parliament passed a law forbidding the King to dissolve it without its consent, even if the three years were up.
  • The first (1642–46) and second (1648–49) wars pitted the supporters of King Charles I against the supporters of the Long Parliament, while the third (1649–51) saw fighting between supporters of King Charles II (Charles I's son) and supporters of the Rump Parliament.
  • During this period, a series of Penal Laws were passed against Roman Catholics (a significant minority in England and Scotland but the vast majority in Ireland) and a substantial amount of their land was confiscated.

• The First Stuarts and Catholicism

  • A conflict had broken out between the Catholic Holy Roman Empire and the Protestant Bohemians, who had deposed the emperor as their king and elected James's son-in-law, Frederick V, Elector Palatine, in his place, triggering the Thirty Years' War.
  • In November 1621, led by Sir Edward Coke, they framed a petition asking not only for a war with Spain but for Prince Charles to marry a Protestant, and for enforcement of the anti-Catholic laws.
  • When Charles ordered a parliamentary adjournment on March 2, members held the Speaker down in his chair so that the ending of the session could be delayed long enough for various resolutions, including Anti-Catholic and tax regulating laws.  
  • The provocation was too much for Charles, who dissolved Parliament.
  • Charles I of England, portrait from the studio of Anthony van Dyck, 1636.   

• The Eugenics Movement

  • Eugenics was a prejudicial pseudoscience with roots in the late 19th and early 20th century that gained popularity and impacted American state and federal laws in the 1920s.
  • The Eugenics Record Office (ERO) was founded in Cold Spring Harbor, New York in 1911 by the renowned biologist Charles B.
  • Laughlin wrote the Virginia model statute that was the basis for the Nazi Ernst Rudin's Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring.
  • American biologist Charles B.
  • A half-cousin of Charles Darwin, Francis Galton founded field of Eugenics and promoted the improvement of the human gene pool through selective breeding.

• The Power of Judicial Review

  • Judicial review can be understood in the context of two distinct—but parallel—legal systems, civil law and common law, and also by two distinct theories on democracy and how a government should be set up, legislative supremacy and separation of powers.
  • Common law judges are seen as sources of law, capable of creating new legal rules and rejecting legal rules that are no longer valid.
  • In the civil law tradition, judges are seen as those who apply the law, with no power to create or destroy legal rules.
  • First introduced by French philosopher Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu , separation of powers was later institutionalized in the United States by the Supreme Court ruling in Marbury v.

• Charles X and the July Revolution

• The Radical Record

  • Radical Republicans, led by Charles Sumner and Thaddeus Stevens, opened the way to suffrage for male freedmen.
  • He proposed the first Civil Rights Law, because the abolition of slavery was empty if laws were to be enacted and enforced depriving persons of African descent of privileges which were essential to free citizens.
  • The law stated that African-Americans were to be granted equal rights as citizens.
  • Then, the Civil Rights bill became law.
  • Charles Sumner (January 6, 1811 – March 11, 1874) was an American politician and senator from Massachusetts.