Aspiration is common, even in healthy patients. Aspiration can have significant morbidity and mortality in certain circumstances. It is categorized based on the predominant material in the aspirate. If oropharyngeal secretions, orally ingested material, or partially digested gastric contents are aspirated, one would expect infectious pneumonia to develop. However, if pure gastric secretions are aspirated, then a chemical pneumonitis is the result. If partially digested gastric contents are aspirated along with some gastric acid, a mixture of chemical pneumonitis and inoculation of the lungs with potentially pathogenic organisms can occur. In practice, it is prudent to treat a chemical pneumonitis with prophylactic antibiotics because a superimposed infection occurs in over 25% of cases. It is difficult to determine the quality of the aspirate in most cases, and a combination of bacterial and chemical injury is common.[1][2]
Risk Factors
Aspiration can affect any age group, but the youngest and oldest are at highest risk because of a higher incidence of risk factors. It equally affects both genders.
The exact number of individuals who develop aspiration pneumonia is not known but they are not minuscule. It is believed that at least 10-15% of patients hospitalized develop aspiration pneumonitis as a result of a drug overdose, stroke, and other CNS pathology.
Healthy people in the community can tolerate small aspiration events without significant sequelae. However, micro-aspiration has been implicated in the pathogenesis of ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP). Several factors may contribute to this. Ventilated patients have significant disease states that may predispose them to a superimposed infection. It should be noted that the endotracheal tube cuff, or tracheostomy tube cuff, does not protect from micro-aspiration, even when properly inflated. The use of endotracheal tubes with aspiration ports proximal to the cuff and connected to continuous suction have successfully decreased the risk of VAP but have not completely stopped its occurrence. It is prudent to use this for patients that are not expected to be weaned from the ventilator early.
Another important consideration is the widespread use of proton pump inhibitors in the intensive care unit (ICU) population. The use of these agents for peptic ulcer prophylaxis is ubiquitous and changes the gastric pH to a less acidic environment. This change in gastric pH leads to a change in the gastric flora, which favors pathogenic organisms over the normal colonizers. With micro-aspiration, this increases the likelihood of pathogenic organisms getting entry into the bronchial tree.[5]
Chemical pneumonitis occurs when a significant amount of gastric content is aspirated. This fluid devoid of bacteria can cause severe respiratory distress within 60 minutes. The acidic fluid results in severe damage to the upper and lower airways.
When patients develop aspiration pneumonia, the predominant organisms are anaerobes but one may also find gram-positive and gram-negative pathogens. Today, MRSA is widely reported to be the cause of aspiration pneumonia in the community.
Aspiration of gastric acid into the bronchial tree can lead to chemical pneumonitis. Depending on the volume of aspirated material, it may be unilateral or bilateral. Often, because the right main-stem bronchus is less acutely angled at the carina, it affects the right lower lobe. However, based on the patient position at the time of aspiration, any lobe may be affected, or all of them given a sufficiently large volume. In chemical aspiration, the injury to the bronchial mucosa is instantaneous. If witnessed, and the equipment is available, bronchoalveolar lavage may be performed to clear the airways and prevent obstruction. However, the tissue reaction to the acid naturally causes increased permeability of the mucosa and neutralization of the acid. The pH of the aspirate is also important, with the highest risk when aspirates are below 2.5 pH.
The pertinent physical findings include tachypnea, coughing, low oxygen saturation, rhonchi, rales, and the absence of breath sounds if an obstruction occurs. In obtunded patients, aspiration may be an ongoing process rather than a single event. History is important as both inpatients and outpatients may have had a witnessed aspiration or developed acute shortness of breath.
Get a chest x-ray to determine the extent of the aspiration. With sufficiently large aspirations, it may become necessary to perform bronchoscopy and bronchoalveolar lavage to clear as much macroscopic material as possible. Perform a swallow evaluation and barium swallow study on any patient at risk for aspiration, by a speech therapist. In young children, this is done under fluoroscopy. Dietary alterations, such as thickened liquids or pureed diets, can help patients with functional swallowing disorders.[6]
The blood gas can provide details about oxygenation and pH status. In addition, lactate levels can be used as a marker of shock.
Levels of electrolytes, BUN, and creatinine can be used to assess renal function and fluid status. The CBC may reveal leucocytosis, anemia, and thrombocytosis.
The value of sputum culture and gram stain is limited because of contamination. Blood cultures are often not positive and not useful for initial management.
The chest x-ray is important as it can provide information on patient position when aspiration occurred. The right lower lobe is the most common site for aspiration because of its vertical orientation. Individuals who aspirate while upright may have bilateral lower lobe infiltrates. Those lying in the left lateral decubitus position may have left-sided infiltrates. The upper lobe is classically involved when the patient aspirates in the prone position. This is often seen in alcoholics. Some patients may develop a parapneumonic effusion, which can be aspirated for culture and gram stain.
CT scan is not routine but may be required if the patient is not improving and there is suspicion of an empyema or a cavitary lesion with necrosis.
Bronchoscopy is usually indicated in chemical pneumonitis when food or foreign material has been aspirated. The technique can also help retrieve samples for culture and can detect any bronchial obstruction.
It is important to determine the type of aspiration that has occurred. If a chemical pneumonitis is suspected, supportive therapy should be initiated. Depending on the overall health status of the patient, intubation may or may not be necessary and should be guided by the clinical picture. It should be noted that chemical pneumonitis may progress very rapidly and commonly leads to acute respiratory distress syndrome. As noted earlier, most cases are not purely chemical or bacterial, so prophylactic antibiotics should be instituted until definitive evidence exists that there is no infectious component.[7][8][9]
If large particles of food or other oral or gastric content enters the bronchial tree, it may require bronchoscopy to alleviate the obstruction of the airways. Any obstruction should be removed as quickly as possible to allow the normal physiologic mechanisms to mobilize secretions and infectious particles.
If the aspiration leads to bacterial pneumonia, appropriate cultures should be obtained and broad-spectrum antibiotics instituted. Once culture sensitivities are available, more directed antibiotic therapy can be used.
Patients at high risk for aspiration should have precautions put in place to reduce the risk. These precautions are dependent on the predisposing risk factors for any individual. Patients unable to contribute to their oral hygiene should have an oral cleansing program provided. This can be accomplished using chlorhexidine oral swabs twice daily, especially in chronically intubated patients. In the intubated patient, it is important to place the patient in a semi-recumbent position (head up 45 degrees) rather than supine, as long as it is not contraindicated. If ventilatory support is expected to be longer than 48 to 72 hours, an endotracheal tube with subglottic suction capability should be placed, and either continuous or intermittent suction should be utilized.
Hemodynamic compromise is common in aspiration pneumonia and patients may require ICU monitoring and inotropic support.
Debilitated and neurologically impaired patients should be fed in an upright position, and a swallow evaluation should be done by a speech therapist or nutritionist to determine the proper consistency of food and liquids. For those unable to tolerate oral intake, a percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy tube (PEG tube) or jejunostomy tube (J-tube) should be considered if recovery is expected to be protracted.
At the time of publication, there are 2 active studies found on ClinicalTrials.gov. These are:
These 2 studies will help the clinician narrow the differential diagnosis when a new clinical finding of hypoxemia, tachypnea or change in lung auscultation occurs.
The prognosis of aspiration is highly variable and dependent on a number of factors. Patients in good health before the event, small volume aspiration, and better pulmonary reserve tend to have a more favorable outcome. Patients with poor host defenses, recurrent aspiration events, large-volume acid aspiration, and underlying pulmonary disease may poorly tolerate the insult. The majority of inpatient management should be focused on prevention when possible. The mortality rate for aspiration pneumonia varies from 10-50%. Any delay in diagnosis or treatment usually leads to high mortality.
Depending on the degree of aspiration, you may need an Intensivist for airway , gas exchange and cardiovascular management. A patient with worsening A-a gradient, tachypnea, hypercapnia, or decreasing Pao2/FiO2 ratio should be emergently evaluated by a critical care or rapid response team. A gastroenterologist may be needed if there is a chronic cause for aspiration, or if there was an ingestion of a toxic material. A Pulmonologist (if not also the intensivist), may be useful in cases where diagnostic or interventional bronchoscopy is necessary.
Other important points include:
Aspiration pneumonia is a common event in hospitals and associated with high morbidity and mortality. Thus, it is best managed by an interprofessional team. Aspiration pneumonia not only increases morbidity, but it also prolongs hospital stay and increases the cost of healthcare. Today, the emphasis is on the prevention of aspiration pneumonia, and it is here that the role of the nurse is indispensable. It is vital for nurses to be aware of the risk factors for aspiration. Patients with altered mental status should generally not be left in the supine position but placed in a recumbent position with the head of the bed elevated at 30 to 45 degrees. A speech therapist should see those patients who have difficulty swallowing to assess their risk of aspiration. Obtain a dietary consult. A soft diet or thickened liquids are recommended, following the evaluation. While feeding the patient, the nurse should keep the patient's head turned, and chin tucked to reduce the risk of aspiration. The pharmacist should be aware of drugs that induce peristalsis because data show that in patients with a feeding tube, the use of a prokinetic agent can help reduce aspiration. The pharmacist should also educate nurses from over-sedating patients. Finally, any time the patient has a nasogastric tube placed for feeding, an x-ray should be obtained to determine the location of the tip. The nurse should always measure residuals to determine the extent of the absorption of food. Open communication between the team is vital to ensure that the outcomes for patients with aspiration pneumonia are good. [10][11][12] (Level V)
Outcomes
The outcomes in patients with aspiration pneumonia depend on the extent of aspiration, patient, age, underlying lung condition, comorbidity, and time to diagnosis. Several studies indicate that aspiration pneumonitis carries a mortality rate of over 20% in older patients. If there is any delay in diagnosis and treatment, numerous complications can develop like a lung abscess, empyema, and bronchopleural fistula. Finally, all health care providers should understand that this diagnosis is often associated with medicolegal implications which may be related to (1) delay in diagnosis, (2) wrong diagnosis, (3) feeding patients with aspiration pneumonitis, and (4) failing to assess the risk of aspiration.[13][14][15] (Level V)
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