It is important to recognize that low-energy, blunt trauma, especially in the elderly population, can induce significant unstable injury. History should also entertain risk factors for fracture such as osteoporosis, metastatic burden, or vitamin D deficiencies. Physical exam findings include pain with palpation in the posterior portion of the neck, radiculopathy, myelopathy, and possible posterior fossa findings secondary to vertebral artery injury. A strict neurologic exam including cranial nerves, sensory, motor, and rectal tone is mandatory.

Laboratory tests should be ordered as an adjunct in overall medical status.  Normalized hemoglobin, hematocrit, coagulation profile with prothrombin time (PT), partial thromboplastin time (PTT), and platelet counts will be needed for operative intervention.

X-ray

Evaluation of x-rays will provide limited but important information. Care must be taken to ensure proper radiographic imaging creates a picture from the occiput to the C7 through T1 disc space. This is essential in reviewing cervical spine trauma. Lateral, anteroposterior (AP) and open mouth odontoid views are necessary. Approximately, 93% of cervical spine injuries are apparent with combined, lateral, AP, and odontoid view radiographs. X-rays are an excellent modality for determining alignment during the immediate injury, post-operative period, as well as long-term, follow up.

Computed tomogram (CT) scan

CT scan is the most important modality for determining fracture etiology and ruling out injury with regards to a C2 fracture. Even if plain films are negative and clinical suspicion is high a CT scan is warranted. CT scan does not directly evaluate the spinal cord, soft tissue, or ligamentous construct. It is important to recognize the importance that complete imaging will require dedicated thin-cut CT reconstructions. Non-contrast CT scan is adequate for evaluation of the bony anatomy for fracture. This can be coupled with a CT angiogram (see below) for evaluation of the vascular anatomy.

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan

Evaluation with MRI is important for the analysis of the ligamentous construct, disc space, spinal cord, nerve roots, and other soft tissue injuries. MRI is also useful for determining the acute nature of the fracture when this is otherwise unknown. This is done via non-contrasted imaging. T2 signal hyperintensities and STIR changes within the dens, ligaments, or soft tissue can illustrate an acute component.  MRI is less dangerous than flexion-extension cervical injury. Furthermore, MRI evaluation is mandatory in the evaluation of the transverse ligament for the surgical decision matrix of non-displaced type II odontoid fractures. An intact transverse ligament is needed for the anterior placement of an odontoid screw.

Vascular Imaging

Vascular imaging may be indicated. The vertebral artery’s second segment (V2) runs through the transverse foramen of C2 to C6 while V3 runs extradurally exiting the C2 foramen across the sulcus arteriosus.  This can place it at risk for injury. Indeed, in one series 15% of patients with C1 to C2 fractures had a vertebral artery injury. Of which, type-III odontoid fractures posed the greatest risk. It is important to note that an untreated vertebral artery injury has a 24% stroke rate. CT angiography can be coupled to CT imaging upon fracture evaluation with consideration of kidney function. Level-III evidence suggests that patients with C1 to C3 fractures can be screened with multi-slice multi-detector CT angiography. At this time MR angiography cannot be listed as the sole imaging modality for the evaluation of vertebral artery injury. First-line investigation with percutaneous angiography is overly aggressive.

Treatment options include conservative management, cervical orthosis, halo-vest orthosis, and surgical procedures.[7][8][9][10] 

External Fixation

Rigid cervical collar represents the immediate first treatment. For type-I and type-III odontoid fractures this is generally adequate. This is also true for 90% of Hangman’s fractures. Halo-vest orthosis can be used as well for external fixation in certain cases of type-II odontoid fractures or angulated/displaced Hangman’s fractures but is not very well tolerated in the elderly population.

Internal Fixation

Internal fixation can be achieved via anterior fixation or by a variety of posterior constructs.

Anterior

An odontoid screw can be placed for type-II odontoid fractures in good alignment with an intact transverse ligament in the acute setting.  There is concern about the placement of the odontoid screw in the elderly population and instances of delayed non-union.

Posterior

• C1 to C2 transarticular screws
• C1 lateral mass and C2 pedicle screws
• C1 lateral mass and C2 pars interarticularis screws
• C1 to C2 wiring (also as an adjunct technique)

Posterior fixation technique selection requires significant review by neurosurgeon or orthopedic spine surgeon. It takes into consideration a variety of factors including surgeon experience, fracture location, vertebral artery location, biomechanical suitability, and anatomical variations. Vascular imaging is mandatory to illustrate the location of the vertebral artery in the V2 and V3 segments. The patient’s overall functional status, medical optimization, and bone health must be evaluated in the operative decision-making. This includes consideration for type-II odontoid fractures.

• Os odontoideum
• Mach effect
• Persistent ossiculum terminale
• Pseudosubluxation (generally C2 to C3)

Generally, C2 fracture treatment is quite successful. In a retrospective study comparing posterior cervical fusion with either C2 pedicle or C2 translaminar screw found that breach of pedicle screws occurred more frequently. The same study determined that the 1-year durability of translaminar screws is inferior to pedicle screws for subaxial fusions but equally effective for axial fusions.[11] Early management of cervical spine injuries is recommended to improve clinical outcomes.[12]

Complications of a C2 fracture treatment include nonunion, malunion, and pseudoarthrosis formation. This risk is higher in those treated with the conservative approach. In patients treated with conservative therapy after initial therapy who present with nonunion, surgical correction is warranted. 

Other complications of this disease are those that are inherent with any surgical procedure such as infection, especially osteomyelitis. Other complications include hardware failure and neurovascular injury. 

In patients undergoing an anterior surgical approach, there is a risk of airway compromise that may lead to prolonged endotracheal intubation.

Patient education on compliance with therapy, especially those planned for conservative treatment is essential. Patients also need to be educated on the importance of clinical and radiologic follow up to ensure adverse outcomes do not occur. 

• A rigid cervical collar should be immediately placed in the emergency room setting.
• It is important to recognize that high cervical spine fractures requiring surgical instrumentation can be complex operative interventions.
• Complete and proper imaging is a must.

Upper cervical spine fractures are not uncommon and usually associated with other injuries as well. These fractures are best managed by an interprofessional team that includes a trauma surgeon, orthopedic surgeon, neurosurgeon, emergency department physician, radiologist, and a neurologist. The treatment options include conservative management, cervical orthosis, halo-vest orthosis, and surgical procedures. The patients are usually monitored by neurosurgery nurses in an ICU setting. The outlook depends on the presence of a neurological deficit on presentation, age of the patient, other associated injuries and head trauma. Isolated high cervical spine injuries that are not displaced have a good prognosis.[13][14]