The introduction of muscle relaxants has revolutionized the practice of anesthesia. By the end of the 1950s, non-depolarizing, neuromuscular, blocking drugs (NMBDs), d-tubocurarine and gallamine, were available.[1] Although these two relaxants are no longer in use, several newer NMBDs have emerged over the last 20 years with safer side effect profiles.[2]

Non-depolarizing NMBDs work by competing with acetylcholine (Ach) for binding sites on nicotinic alpha subunits. They produce skeletal muscle relaxation for endotracheal intubation, reduce patient movement to optimize operating conditions, and research has shown them to improve compliance with mechanical ventilation. Notably, there has yet to be a non-depolarizing NMBD developed that can work faster than the rapid-onset, depolarizing muscle relaxant succinylcholine. However, onset can accelerate by using larger initial dosing of some non-depolarizing NMBDs, for example, rocuronium. Since muscle relaxants lack analgesic or anesthetic properties, they are not for use without anxiolytic or hypnotic agents or in inadequately anesthetized patients due to increased risk of awareness during general anesthesia.[3]

The Ach receptor housed within the post-junctional motor neuron cell membrane is comprised of five glycoprotein subunits: two alpha subunits, and one each of beta, gamma, and epsilon. The arrangement of these subunits is in a cylindrical fashion with the center containing an ion channel. When Ach binds to the two alpha-subunits, there is ion flow through the central ion channel with subsequent depolarization of the motor neuron. A non-depolarizing NMBD is a quaternary ammonium compound with positively-charged nitrogen that imparts an affinity to nicotinic Ach receptors. It only needs to bind one of the two alpha subunits to block Ach, thus preventing depolarization and producing muscle relaxation.[4]

The two major structural classes of non-depolarizing agents include aminosteroid and benzylisoquinolinium. Recently, a third class has been developed, known as asymmetrical mixed-onium chlorofumarate (i.e., gantacurium).[5][6] Examples of common aminosteroids include rocuronium, vecuronium, and pancuronium. Common benzylisoquinolinium compounds include atracurium, cisatracurium, and mivacurium.[2]

Weight-based dosing scalars are important because administration based on total body weight may result in overdose while dosing based on ideal body weight may be sub-therapeutic. Recommendations are that non-depolarizing NMBDs are dosed based on ideal body weight to avoid prolonged paralysis.[7] Intravenous (IV) injection is the most common mode of delivery, although intramuscular (IM) injections may be possible for some non-depolarizing relaxants. The 95% effective dose (ED95) for NMBDs specifies the dose that produces 95% twitch depression in 50% of individuals. One to two times the ED95 dose for a particular non-depolarizing NMBD is the typical dose administered for intubation.[8][9]

A provider’s choice of non-depolarizing NMBD depends on the desired speed of onset, duration of action, route of elimination, and side effects. For instance, muscle relaxants with a rapid onset (i.e., rocuronium) and brief duration may be desirable when endotracheal intubation is the reason for paralysis. On the other hand, a longer-acting agent like pancuronium may also produce intubating conditions in 90 seconds, but at the cost of pronounced tachycardia within the patient and a block that may be irreversible by an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor (for over 60 minutes), increasing the risk of postoperative pulmonary complications.[10] The table below displays the characteristics of various non-depolarizing NMBDs.[8][9]

A non-immunologic histamine release occurs with the administration of benzylisoquinolinium compounds, typically mivacurium, atracurium, and doxacurium. This reaction is dose-related and affected by delivery rate, leading to positive chronotropy (H receptors), positive inotropy (H receptors), positive dromotropy (H receptors), skin flushing and hypotension from peripheral vasodilation, and rarely bronchospasm.

Several large-scale studies showed that NMBDs are the most common causative agents of anesthesia-related anaphylaxis.[11][12] A prior history for anaphylaxis to one non-depolarizing NMBD also places a patient at an increased risk of cross-reactivity to another non-depolarizing NMBD.

Other notable side effects are drug-specific. Pancuronium may cause tachycardia and hypertension due to its vagolytic mechanism on nodal cells mediated through muscarinic receptors. Laudanosine, a metabolite of atracurium and cis-atracurium, may accumulate and cause central nervous system stimulation with resultant seizures. Finally, in critically ill patients, long-term infusions of non-depolarizing NMBDs, particularly aminosteroids, can lead to profound weakness, termed critical illness polymyoneuropathy (CIP).[13]

Drug interactions may potentiate weakness from non-depolarizing muscle relaxants, including volatile anesthetics, local anesthetics, certain antibiotics (i.e., aminoglycosides), and magnesium. Physiological alterations may also potentiate paralysis, including respiratory acidosis, metabolic alkalosis, hypothermia, hypokalemia, hypercalcemia, and hypermagnesemia.[10][14][15]

Prior hypersensitivity reactions and inadequate sedation are contraindications. The provider should also consider the metabolism of certain non-depolarizing NMBDs. Only pancuronium and vecuronium are metabolized to any significant degree by the liver (deacetylation), and thus caution is advised in hepatic failure. Vecuronium and rocuronium undergo biliary excretion and may accumulate to toxic levels in extrahepatic biliary obstruction. Relaxants that primarily undergo renal excretion (e.g., doxacurium, pancuronium, pipecuronium) are to be avoided in renal failure. Atracurium and cisatracurium are unique NMBDs because they undergo spontaneous degradation via Hofmann elimination. The metabolism of mivacurium is via plasma pseudocholinesterase, similar to succinylcholine.[8]