Patients presenting with PCP may have subtle or obvious signs of illness. Literature notes that HIV-infected patients will likely have a more indolent and subtle onset of symptoms such as a non-productive and dry cough, 95%; low-grade fever, greater than 80%, and progressive dyspnea, 95% over the course of several weeks. In contrast, those not infected with HIV patients can present similarly but may have a more abrupt onset of symptoms and accompanying respiratory distress or failure. Both patient populations will typically have some degree of hypoxemia and respiratory distress at the time of presentation.

History must be aimed at evaluating the patient for underlying causes of immunodeficiency and, as such, their risk of contracting an opportunistic infection. As mentioned before, PCP is considered an AIDS-defining illness and therefore a history of HIV infection must be obtained along with whether the patient is undergoing antiretroviral therapy (ART). History may reveal signs and symptoms such as fatigue, weight loss, myalgia/arthralgia, rash, and headache, which may point to an undiagnosed and underlying HIV infection. Also important during the evaluation is to ascertain if a patient has recently been on glucocorticoids or had a change to their dose of immunosuppressive therapies.

Physical exam findings are important in determining a patient's level of distress. No classic exam findings point directly at a Pneumocystis infection, but many findings are indicative of a respiratory illness such as pneumonia. The exam may reveal crackles and rhonchi on auscultation, but 50% of cases will have normal and clear lung sounds. Other common physical exam findings include associated dyspnea, tachypnea, and tachycardia. Patients will likely present with a fever, most times greater than 38.1 C. HIV-infected patients often will present with oral thrush as a co-infection; therefore, it is important to do a thorough head-to-toe examination to evaluate for any other signs that may be indicators of an underlying immunologic disorder.

Diagnosis of PCP is multifactorial and may include clinical suspicion, patient risk factors, laboratory evaluations, chest radiograph, chest CT, sputum studies, evaluation of bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, or lung biopsies. Laboratory findings can be nonspecific for PCP and of most notable mention is an elevated serum lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) in HIV-infected patients. Immunocompromised individuals without HIV may have elevated serum LDH for a variety of reasons; therefore, LDH is not a highly valuable diagnostic tool in this patient population. Most fungi, including Pneumocystis, contain beta-D-glucagon in their cell walls. Elevation of serum beta-D-glucagon in the setting of those with clinical signs and risk factors for pneumonia should raise suspicion for Pneumocystis infection and prompt further diagnostic evaluation. An arterial blood gas analysis should be obtained in patients who are hypoxic with tachycardia and signs of respiratory distress to assess the severity of their illness, and results will likely show an elevated Alveolar-arterial (A-a) oxygen gradient in the setting of PCP.[8][9][10]

A chest radiograph will typically reveal diffuse bilateral peri-hilar interstitial infiltrates. These changes become increasingly homogenous as the disease course progresses. Other radiographic findings seen may include solitary or multiple nodules which may progress to become cavitary lesions, lobar infiltrates such as upper lobe lesions in patients receiving certain antimicrobial medications and pneumothorax in some cases. If there is a clinical concern for infection with Pneumocystis and negative chest radiograph, CT of the chest should be performed and may show ground glass attenuation or cystic lesions with high sensitivity.

Since Pneumocystis cannot be cultured, definitive diagnosis requires detection and identification of the organism by polymerase chain reaction assays of respiratory specimens, dye staining, or fluorescein antibody staining. Testing of this manner requires microscopic examination of a patient's sputum or bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, and these samples only should be obtained when safe and if the patient is stable. Definitive diagnosis of PCP may not always be possible. For example, patients with HIV/AIDS will have fewer neutrophils and a higher number of organisms present in their sputum and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, making the diagnosis easier or more likely attainable. In contrast, patients with immunosuppression and without HIV infection will likely have a lower organism burden in their sputum or bronchoalveolar lavage fluid samples, making the diagnosis difficult. Regardless, if there is clinical concern or suspicion for PCP in a high-risk patient the practitioner should treat the patient accordingly, regardless of whether a definitive diagnosis has or can be made.

Treatment for a presumed PCP should not be withheld while diagnostic measures are pending. Treatment should be initiated in patients who have known risk factors and when clinical suspicion for infections exists. Most studies for PCP treatment have been performed in HIV-infected versus HIV-uninfected patients. Treatment in mild cases can be performed with oral therapies on an outpatient basis unless, of course, the patient cannot tolerate oral therapies, has a moderate or severe case that requires corticosteroids, or the patient requires a drug regimen that may only be given intravenously.[11][12][13]

Due to its efficacy, the first-line treatment choice for both HIV-infected and uninfected patients is 21 days of Trimethoprim-Sulfamethoxazole (TMP-SMX). For mild to moderate treatment, TMP 15 to 20 mg/kg/day and SMX 75 to 100 mg/kg/day, given orally in 3 divided doses or TMP-SMX DS, 2 tablets 3 times per day. For moderate to severe cases, TMP 15 to 20 mg/kg/day and SMX 75-100 mg/kg/day given intravenously (IV) every 6 to 8 hours with a switch to oral when the patient shows clinical improvement. In patients with a mild allergy to TMP-SMX, desensitization should be attempted as this is the most effective drug of choice. In patients with severe allergies to TMP-SMX, desensitization is no longer recommended, and it is more appropriate to choose a different drug regimen.

Alternative drug regimens for the treatment of PCP in those with sulfa allergies and mild to moderate disease include Atavaquone 750 mg, by mouth twice per day, Trimethoprim 15 mg/kg/day by mouth twice per day plus Dapsone 100 mg by mouth every day, or Primaquine 30 mg by mouth every day plus Clindamycin by mouth 450 mg every 6 hours or 600 mg every 8 hours. Alternative treatment for moderate to severe cases includes Pentamidine 4 mg/kg IV once daily over 60 minutes or Primaquine 30 mg by mouth every day plus Clindamycin IV 600 mg every 6 hours or 900 mg every 8 hours. Primaquine can only be orally administered, and patients who cannot tolerate oral medications should be given IV Pentamidine, but caution should be used due to its increased toxicity and side effects when compared to Primaquine. Caution must be used in patients with glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency if Dapsone or Primaquine are used as they can cause an increased risk of hemolytic anemia.

In HIV-infected patients with a moderate or severe disease, current recommendations suggest the addition of glucocorticoids to the treatment regimen as their use has been shown to improve clinical outcome and mortality. HIV-infected patients with a room air arterial blood gas partial pressure of oxygen that is less than or equal to 70 mm Hg, an alveolar-arterial (A-a) gradient greater than or equal to 35 mm Hg, or hypoxia on pulse oximetry should receive steroids. Corticosteroids also may be recommended in HIV-uninfected patients with PCP due to the potential for high mortality and fulminant course of illness, but data is limited on whether there are benefits or a decrease in in-hospital mortality. Dosing for prednisone should be started as soon as possible or within 72 hours of starting treatment for PCP and is as follows: 40 mg by mouth twice per day on days 1 through 5, 40 mg by mouth daily days 6 through 10, and 20 mg orally daily on days 11 through 21. IV methylprednisone can be given at 75% of the prednisone dose if oral therapy cannot be tolerated. HIV-infected patients who are not already on them should have antiretroviral therapy (ART) initiated within two weeks of Pneumocystis treatment or as soon as they are stable enough to begin treatment. Patients will usually show slightly worsening clinical signs around days 3 to 4 due to the host's inflammatory response to dying organisms and then improvement afterward.

Prophylaxis treatment guidelines have been established for certain patient populations. Patients who are immunocompromised such as those with malignancy and who are taking glucocorticoid doses greater than 20 mg daily for one month or longer, patients who have received bone marrow suppressive therapies or antineoplastic therapies, and those who have undergone hematopoietic cell or solid organ transplantation should receive primary prophylaxis for Pneumocystis. First-line prophylaxis treatment is Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole 1 double-strength tablet by mouth daily or 1 single-strength tablet by mouth daily. For those with sulfa allergies, recommended prophylaxis includes Dapsone 100 mg by mouth daily or 50 mg by mouth twice each day, Dapsone 50 mg by mouth daily plus pyrimethamine 50 mg plus leucovorin 25 mg by mouth weekly, Dapsone 200 mg plus pyrimethamine 75 mg plus leucovorin 25 mg by mouth weekly, Atovaquone 1500 mg by mouth daily, Atovaquone 1500 mg plus pyrimethamine 25 mg plus leucovorin 10 mg by mouth daily, or Aerosolized pentamidine 300 mg monthly via Respigard II nebulizer. HIV-infected individuals should receive prophylaxis with the same medications recommended above when CD4+ count is below 200 cells/microL or CD4+ less than 14 percent, presence of oropharyngeal candidiasis, and a CD4+ of 200-250 cells/microL when ART cannot be started or if monitoring of CD4+ count every 3 months is not possible.

Prognosis of treatment depends on many factors including the degree of hypoxia at presentation, age, prior PCP, elevated serum LDH, low CD4+ count, and presence of other opportunistic infections, such as CMV. The presence of any of the above-mentioned factors carries a higher risk of mortality and poor outcome. Mild to moderate disease has overall mortality rates as high as 65%. Patients with severe disease and respiratory failure who require mechanical ventilation and intensive care unit (ICU) admission have mortality rates as high as 84%.

Patients should be monitored for adverse reactions and signs of treatment failure when started on antimicrobial therapies. Monitoring should include vital signs (most notably oxygen saturation), labs such as complete blood counts, liver function enzymes, renal function, glucose, and electrolytes. Treatment is considered failed if the patient does not show signs of clinical improvement after 4 to 8 days. No definitive studies exist regarding the guidelines for treatment failure management, but most many studies agree that combination treatment with primaquine plus clindamycin may be the most effective regimen for salvage therapy. It is important to also search for concurrent infections that may be causing illness besides Pneumocystis and treat those accordingly.[14]

• ARDS
• Viral or bacterial pneumonia
• Tuberculosis
• Legionella pneumonia
• Mycoplasma infections

• Lymphadenopathy
• Bone marrow involvement leading to pancytopenia
• Involvement of the GI tract and thyroid gland
• ARDS
• Respiratory failure

Pneumocystis was once considered an AIDS-defining illness, but due to prophylaxis and antiretroviral therapy, the incidence of disease in HIV-infected individuals has been drastically reduced.

Symptoms include fever, exertional dyspnea, and dry cough, and the diagnosis should be suspected in anyone with compromised immunity such as cancer, transplant patients, or those on immunosuppressive therapies.

Treatment is with trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole although other lines of therapy exist for those with allergies or severe illness.

Prophylaxis is also with trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole and recommended in certain populations such as HIV- infected individuals with CD4+ counts less than 200 cells/microL or CD4+ less than 14%, presence of oropharyngeal candidiasis, and a CD4+ of 200-250 cells/microL when ART cannot be started or if monitoring of CD4+ count every 3 months is not possible. 

The illness can be categorized as mild, moderate, or severe and new recommendations suggest the use of glucocorticoids in HIV-infected patients with a room air arterial blood gas partial pressure of oxygen that is less than or equal to 70 mm Hg, an alveolar-arterial (A-a) gradient greater than or equal to 35 mm Hg, or hypoxia on pulse oximetry should receive steroids.

Any patients needing corticosteroids should be admitted to the hospital for monitoring and into the ICU for respiratory failure and continued monitoring.

PCP is best managed by an interprofessional team that includes a pulmonologist, infectious disease expert, pharmacist, intensivist, nurse, respiratory therapist and a dietitian. Once the diagnosis of PCP is made, the patient should be urged to discontinue smoking, as nicotine tends to worsen the symptoms and complicates therapy. Since most patients with PCP are frail, a dietary consult should be sought to increase calorie intake. The pharmacist should educate the patient on the importance of medication compliance. Patients receiving corticosteroids should be followed closely to monitor the side effects, which both nursing and pharmacy can do, reporting any concerns to the prescriber. Finally, these patients need lifelong follow up with monitoring of CD 4 counts, viral load, and progression of the disease.[13] (Level V)

Outcomes

In the past, PCP carried a high mortality, but over the past two decades, the mortality rates have dropped because of earlier diagnosis and treatment. Currently, at least 10-20% of patients with PCP will die. PCP carries an even worse prognosis in patients without HIV infection, with mortality rates over 50%. In general, the mortality rates are much higher when there is an underlying lung disorder and in patients who require mechanical ventilation.[11][15] (Level V)