Chlorthalidone is a thiazide-like sulfonamide-derived diuretic that has been FDA approved since 1960 for the management of hypertension.[1] Chlorthalidone is a first-line agent for the treatment of hypertension.[2] This medication is utilized both as an isolated agent or in combination with other antihypertensive drugs, including beta-blockers or clonidine.
It is also used in the treatment of edema.[3] The utility for edema comes in multiple settings, including congestive heart failure, hepatic cirrhosis, corticosteroid therapy, as well as renal dysfunction, including chronic renal failure, nephrotic syndrome, and acute glomerular nephritis.[3] Chlorthalidone should also be considered in the treatment of calcium nephrolithiasis, Meniere disease, and diabetes insipidus, although it does not have FDA approval for the treatment of these conditions.[4][5] Chlorthalidone treats these conditions by antagonizing sodium chloride co-transporter in the distal convoluted tubule (DCT) in the loop of Henle.[6]
Chlorthalidone's first indication was as an antihypertensive agent. It is effective in the management of blood pressure by decreasing intravascular volume through promoted diuresis. Per the 2017 guideline for the prevention, detection, evaluation, and management of high blood pressure, chlorthalidone can be used as a first-line age in the setting of hypertension when there are no contraindications or contributory comorbidities.[7] However, patients with cerebrovascular disease, advanced chronic kidney disease, diabetes, and heart failure treatment would preferably receive treatment with angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibiting medication (ACE-I). These guidelines suggest that dihydropyridine calcium channel blockers and thiazide-like diuretics are the preferred agents in the absence of comorbidities because of better cardiovascular outcomes, specifically the reduced risk of heart failure and cerebral vascular accident.[8] Of note, the ALLHAT (Antihypertensive and Lipid-Lowering Treatment to Prevent Heart Attack) trial compared other first-line antihypertensives such as calcium channel blockers and angiotensin-converting-enzyme-inhibitors(ACE-I) against chlorthalidone. ALLHAT concluded that thiazide-like diuretics should be considered in the first-line treatment in hypertensive patients as chlorthalidone had less association with stroke compared to ACE-I and less association with heart-failure in comparison to calcium channel blockers. The results of this study were attributed to the earlier and more significant decrease of blood pressure, specifically systolic, from chlorthalidone in comparison to lisinopril and amlodipine.[8]
Thiazide-like medication versus thiazide-type diuretics
Thiazide-type medication, most commonly hydrochlorothiazide (HCTZ), has been around longer than thiazide-like antihypertensives and was previously utilized more substantially. However, multiple studies have shown the preference for thiazide-like medications over their original counterparts. A 2015 systematic review showed that chlorthalidone alleviated hypertensive burden by about 5.1 mmHg of systolic blood pressure more than HCTZ, finding Chlorthalidone to be more potent than HCTZ[9]. In addition to potency, studies have demonstrated that chlorthalidone holds a longer duration of action than HCTZ, 24 hours with chlorthalidone versus 6 to 12 hours with HCTZ. This increased duration of action allows for the increased flexibility of dosing.[9] A study has shown that as a result of this longer duration of action that chlorthalidone is 1.5 to 2.0 times more efficacious at lowering systolic blood pressure than HCTZ (comparative antihypertensive effects between hydrochlorothiazide and chlorthalidone on ambulatory and office blood pressure.[10]).
Cardiovascular Outcomes
With consideration of any antihypertensive medication, the effect of cardiovascular outcomes is of the highest priority. The ALLHAT trial showed a decreased risk of heart failure exacerbation and cerebral vascular accidents in comparison to amlodipine and lisinopril, respectively.[8][11] Additionally, a meta-analysis in 2012, including over 100000 patients, concluded that Chlorthalidone and thiazide-like diuretics lowered the risk of both heart failure by twenty-one percent and cardiovascular events by twelve percent. In comparison, thiazide-type HCTZ did not show improved outcomes in comparison to placebo.[8]
Chlorthalidone exerts its therapeutic action by antagonizing sodium-chloride symporter in the distal convoluted tubule of the nephron. It is similar to a thiazide diuretic in its mechanism of action, although it has a mildly altered chemical structure. Both thiazide and thiazide-like diuretics contain a sulfonamide group that additionally works to inhibit carbonic anhydrase, in addition to its antagonistic action at the distal convoluted tubule.[9]
Chlorthalidone inhibits the reabsorption of sodium at the level of the distal convoluted tubule and thus chloride via inhibition of the Na/Cl symporter. By removing sodium reabsorption at this location, the distal convoluted tubule of the nephron retains a higher sodium content. This lack of reabsorption alters the osmotic gradient and shifts fluid distribution from outside of the tubule to the inside of the tubule. The increased osmotic load from its increased sodium concentration leads to elevated intratubular volume, thus promoting its diuretic effect. The increased excretion of sodium and extracellular fluid decreases intravascular water and solute concentration. By lowering the intravascular volume and osmotic gradient, the patient then has reduced hydrostatic pressure leading to a clinical reduction in blood pressure.
Chlorthalidone is available solely as an oral medication.
Strength: 25 mg, 50 mg
Heart-failure: starting from 12.5 mg or 25 mg daily, maximum dose: 100 mg daily
Generalized edema: starting from 50 g or 100 mg daily, maximum dose: 200 mg daily
Calcium nephrolithiasis: 25 mg/daily
The age of the patient is also an important consideration while determining the dose. The geriatric population (age over 65 years) should receive lower dosing of chlorthalidone, starting with 6.25 mg to 12.5 mg daily and titrated slowly as mentioned above.
Chlorthalidone is available solely as an oral medication. Chlorthalidone comes in pills of 25 mg and 50 mg, which can be split for adequate dosing. Dosing regimens vary depending on clinical indication. For the treatment of heart-failure, guidelines recommend dosing started at 12.5 mg or 25 mg daily and can be titrated up to 100 mg daily as necessary. For generalized edema, dosing begins with 50 to 100 mg daily and can be titrated up to a maximum of 200 mg daily. As outlined above, chlorthalidone can also be utilized for the management of calcium nephrolithiasis, which is generalized administered as 25mg/daily. The age of the patient is also an essential consideration while determining the dose. The geriatric population, patients older than 65 years of age, should receive lower dosing of chlorthalidone, starting with 6.25 to 12.5 mg titrated to a maximum of 25mg/daily. Diuretic medication, such as chlorthalidone, is a Beers criteria medication and thus should be used with caution.[12]
Significant adverse effects are electrolyte derangement (hypokalemia, hyponatremia, etc.), hypersensitivity reaction, and precipitation of acute gout attacks.
The adverse effects of chlorthalidone span across most organ systems to differing degrees and manifestations. Of significance, as a result of promoted diuresis and altering of nephron physiology, electrolyte derangement is a commonly reported adverse effect of this medication. Most commonly, chlorthalidone includes hypokalemia but may also cause hyponatremia or hypochloremia. These known derangements make monitoring of serum electrolytes essential on patients receiving chlorthalidone periodically throughout hypertensive management.
Reported side effects (per the Food and Drug Administration):
Absolute Contraindications:
Relative Contraindication:
The following items require periodic monitoring when the patients take with chlorthalidone.
There are inadequate studies performed to check teratogenicity, but chlorthalidone should be used during pregnancy only if absolutely required.
Symptoms of acute overdosage:
Treatment of acute overdosage:
As a sulfonamide-derived medication, it is essential to review relevant allergies when prescribing chlorthalidone. An interprofessional team approach can help to maintain updated allergies. A review of allergies can start upon reception by asking patients to review their previous chart and update relevant sections, including allergies. Further, pharmacists can also inquire when interacting with the patient. While in a hospital setting, it can be prompted before administration by the nurse. In a pharmacy setting, the pharmacist can inquire before the dispersal of the medication. Additionally, EMR is now allowing an additional barrier with risk-advisory when prescribing medication to which patients are allergic.[14] Updating the type of adverse reaction occurring with the allergy is vital to avoid and characterize the true allergy. Deciphering whether a true allergy or previous side-effect from a medication is crucial as it changes therapeutic options for the patient.[14] [Oxford CEBM level III] The interprofessional paradigm will contribute to positive patient outcomes when using chlorthalidone. [Level 5]
[1] | HOLLANDER W,WILKINS RW, Chlorothiazide: a new type of drug for the treatment of arterial hypertension. BMQ; the Boston medical quarterly. 1957 Sep; [PubMed PMID: 13471453] |
[2] | Thanikgaivasan V, Letter - Diuretics in primary hypertension - Reloaded. Indian heart journal. 2017 Mar - Apr; [PubMed PMID: 28460781] |
[3] | Akbari P,Khorasani-Zadeh A, Thiazide Diuretics 2019 Jan; [PubMed PMID: 30422513] |
[4] | Roush GC,Abdelfattah R,Song S,Ernst ME,Sica DA,Kostis JB, Hydrochlorothiazide vs chlorthalidone, indapamide, and potassium-sparing/hydrochlorothiazide diuretics for reducing left ventricular hypertrophy: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of clinical hypertension (Greenwich, Conn.). 2018 Oct; [PubMed PMID: 30251403] |
[5] | Riley M,Hernandez AK,Kuznia AL, High Blood Pressure in Children and Adolescents. American family physician. 2018 Oct 15; [PubMed PMID: 30277729] |
[6] | Greger R,Lohrmann E,Schlatter E, Action of diuretics at the cellular level. Clinical nephrology. 1992; [PubMed PMID: 1338305] |
[7] | Zhou Y,Jia L,Lu B,Gu G,Hu H,Zhang Z,Bai L,Cui W, Updated hypertension prevalence, awareness, and control rates based on the 2017ACC/AHA high blood pressure guideline. Journal of clinical hypertension (Greenwich, Conn.). 2019 Jun; [PubMed PMID: 31131983] |
[8] | Dewland TA,Soliman EZ,Davis BR,Magnani JW,Yamal JM,Piller LB,Haywood LJ,Alonso A,Albert CM,Marcus GM, Effect of the Antihypertensive and Lipid-Lowering Treatment to Prevent Heart Attack Trial (ALLHAT) on Conduction System Disease. JAMA internal medicine. 2016 Aug 1; [PubMed PMID: 27367818] |
[9] | Dineva S,Uzunova K,Pavlova V,Filipova E,Kalinov K,Vekov T, Comparative efficacy and safety of chlorthalidone and hydrochlorothiazide-meta-analysis. Journal of human hypertension. 2019 Nov; [PubMed PMID: 31595024] |
[10] | Pareek AK,Messerli FH,Chandurkar NB,Dharmadhikari SK,Godbole AV,Kshirsagar PP,Agarwal MA,Sharma KH,Mathur SL,Kumbla MM, Efficacy of Low-Dose Chlorthalidone and Hydrochlorothiazide as Assessed by 24-h Ambulatory Blood Pressure Monitoring. Journal of the American College of Cardiology. 2016 Feb 2 [PubMed PMID: 26821625] |
[11] | Roush GC,Holford TR,Guddati AK, Chlorthalidone compared with hydrochlorothiazide in reducing cardiovascular events: systematic review and network meta-analyses. Hypertension (Dallas, Tex. : 1979). 2012 Jun [PubMed PMID: 22526259] |
[12] | American Geriatrics Society 2019 Updated AGS Beers Criteria® for Potentially Inappropriate Medication Use in Older Adults. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society. 2019 Apr; [PubMed PMID: 30693946] |
[13] | Cooney D,Milfred-LaForest S,Rahman M, Diuretics for hypertension: Hydrochlorothiazide or chlorthalidone? Cleveland Clinic journal of medicine. 2015 Aug; [PubMed PMID: 26270432] |
[14] | Hsieh TC,Kuperman GJ,Jaggi T,Hojnowski-Diaz P,Fiskio J,Williams DH,Bates DW,Gandhi TK, Characteristics and consequences of drug allergy alert overrides in a computerized physician order entry system. Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association : JAMIA. 2004 Nov-Dec; [PubMed PMID: 15298998] |