In humans, the incubation period of scrub typhus can range between 10 to 12 days, although it can vary between 6 and 21 days.[8] After the bite of the infected Leptotrombidium mite, patients can present with nonspecific flu-like symptoms that include fever and rash.

Patients may also present with an eschar at the site of the bite, which usually produces no pain or itch at the time of the bite (Fig 1).

• The bite mark ‘eschar’ is a pathognomonic clinical feature of scrub typhus that occurs at the site of this chigger feeding. It appears as an ulcer that enlarges and undergoes central necrosis to finally turn into a black crust. This particular skin lesion may appear like a skin burn from a cigarette.
• Common sites of eschar include the neck, axillary, and the infra axillary regions. In both sexes, it is usually seen below the umbilicus in the front of the body, while in women, the prominent sites were the mammary and inframammary regions.[9]

There can be nonspecific in the form of headaches and fever, which are the most common features. Infected individuals may also develop generalized lymphadenopathy, nausea, and vomiting, along with abdominal pain and myalgia.

Towards the beginning of the second week, especially those individuals with untreated disease systemic manifestations of the disease may start to develop. This can range from the central nervous system manifestations such as acute diffuse encephalomyelitis, encephalopathy, meningitis, and sometimes deafness, cranial nerve palsies, several ocular manifestations.[10][11][12]

• Cardiovascular manifestations may range from non-fatal rhythm abnormalities to features of congestive heart failure.[8][13]
• The renal system may also be affected that might result in acute renal failure).
• Interstitial pneumonia and acute respiratory distress syndrome may herald the involvement of respiratory system involvement.
• There may also be involvement of the gastrointestinal system, which can manifest as pancreatitis, alteration in liver functions, and diarrhea.[14][15][16]

Early diagnosis of acute scrub typhus infection is important for appropriate patient management as it is paramount in guidance for appropriate therapy, and its timely prevention of complications. In areas where scrub typhus is endemic, rapid, sensitive, and affordable diagnostics tools are usually unavailable hence clinicians have to begin empirical treatment based on suspicion. This may often lead to misdiagnosis and, as a result, patient mismanagement. 

Although the availability of various methods of diagnosis of scrub typhus serological methods of diagnosis remains the mainstay, a significant IgM antibody titer appears by the end of the first week in primary scrub typhus infection, whereas IgG antibodies usually take around two weeks to appear at significant levels. In cases of reinfection, IgG titers can be detected as early as the sixth day of infection, and the levels of IgM antibody titers in such cases may be variable.[1]

Weil–Felix testing, the oldest test still in use today, is neither sensitive nor a specific diagnostic test for Scrub Typhus. This test relies on the use of cross-reacting proteus OXK strain for the serodiagnosis, but it provides little help in timely diagnosis as it has low sensitivity.

The indirect immunofluorescent antibody (IFA) test is considered the gold standard for the diagnosis of scrub typhus. The test is based on the principle of fluorescence-labeled anti-human immunoglobulin, and it detects antibodies in the serum of the infected patient. The test is positive when the fluorescence-labeled anti-human immunoglobulin binds to the immobilized bacterial antigen that was laid on a slide. This method has several limitations as it requires repeat testing to demonstrate the difference of a fourfold increase in antibody titers while in acute and subsequently in the convalescent phase of serum samples. Thus it is a retrospective diagnosis and is of little importance to guide initial management in settings of acute infection. If prior studies have not been performed in the population of the locality for baseline seroprevalence levels, a single high antibody titer cannot be considered diagnostic.[17]

Indirect immunoperoxidase (IIP) came into use to overcome this shortcoming after modifying the IFA methods. Diagnosis can be made without a fluorescent microscope, as this method uses peroxidase-labeled antibodies instead of fluorescein. IIP methods have shown results that are equivalent to IFA. However, the sensitivity of this test is influenced by the various strains (as in IFA). Although there is no use of a fluorescent microscope, the need for technical expertise remains the same.

Enzyme-linked immunoabsorbent assays (ELISA) currently is the preferred method of choice for serological diagnosis in acute scrub typhus infection as the resources for conducting IFA are not routinely available in common laboratories, and since there is the low sensitivity of Weil–Felix testing. It uses a recombinant p56-kDa type-specific antigen of O. tsutsugamushi strains that combine with IgM antibodies produced against the strains of Karp, Kato, Gilliam, and TA716 in acute infections for its detection. In India, IgM ELISA with cutoff OD 0.5 has been recommended as the most sensitive test to indicate recent infection with O. tsutsugamushi.[18]

Immunochromatographic tests (ICT) is a rapid diagnostic point-of-care test. The rapid diagnostic tests used for scrub typhus uses the same basic principles as employed in other serologic tests. Since it uses the same recombinant 56-kDa TSA of only the common subgroups viz. Karp, Kato, and Gilliam result in a wide range of sensitivities and specificities. ICTs in the detection of IgM have sensitivities that range from 74 to 90% and specificities from 86 to 99%.[1]

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) techniques have a major outstanding advantage as it can detect the diseases before antibodies have become detectable by serological methods and thus allows the infection to be diagnosed earlier. There are concerns that direct detection of the organism can be affected by antibiotics. However, cultures of eschar tissues have yielded positive results even up to 7 days, even after the use of antibiotics.[1] Though PCR is highly sensitive and specific in detecting very low numbers of copies, the cost factor prevents its use in routine diagnosis in areas of endemicity.

Bacterial culture is a long and tedious process as O. tsutsugamushi is an obligate intracellular pathogen. It also requires biosafety level 3 containment and requires much technical expertise. Samples were taken from blood, buffy coat, and skin biopsies from experimental mammals. However, due to these tedious processes, culture can hardly be used as a diagnostic tool in a clinical setting. Hence, this endeavor remains only for research purposes in reference laboratories.

Therefore, in summary, the diagnosis of scrub typhus is highly dependent on maintaining a higher degree of clinical suspicion and judicious use of limited diagnostic tests, especially in the areas of high endemicity.

Tetracycline, azithromycin, doxycycline, and rifampicin are effective antimicrobials for scrub typhus.

• Doxycycline has been the mainstay of treatment across the rickettsial diseases, including scrub typhus given at a dose of 100mg IV or orally twice daily for 7 to 14 days. However, several reports have indicated suspected doxycycline resistance. This is derived from the treatment failures results from cohort studies such as Thipmontree 2016 and the acquisition of scrub typhus during doxycycline malaria prophylaxis (Corwin 1999).[19]

• Azithromycin is an excellent alternative, particularly when resistance to doxycycline is suspected.[20] It has a long tissue half-life and long-lasting post-antibiotic effects and hence may be given for shorter duration without the risks of relapses. Also, it efficiently penetrates polymorphonuclear leukocytes and macrophages, which are target cells for O. tsutsugamushi.[21]

• Rifampicin is another option. However, the risk of inducing resistant tuberculosis must be weighted in undiagnosed patients, and hence clinicians should not regard this agent as a first-line treatment option but should consider it as a second-line treatment option after exclusion of active tuberculosis.[22]

Chemoprophylaxis can be given with a weekly dose of 200 mg of doxycycline. This is, however, controversial as there are limited studies favoring it, but this may be suggested for high occupational risk such as agricultural laborers.[23] Despite these measures, patients may present with multi-organ dysfunction syndrome, a life-threatening complication of scrub typhus, and require an interprofessional approach and management involving ICU care. However, timely symptomatic treatment and antibiotic therapy can lead to patient recovery without many end-organ deficits.

Scrub typhus is one of the most underdiagnosed causes of tropical fevers. It can present as a fever of unknown origin and with other rickettsioses can cause diagnostic confusions. Scrub typhus presenting with encephalitis can be difficult to distinguish with other common causes of viral or bacterial encephalitis. It can sometimes present without eschar with only flu-like symptoms, thus can confuse with other causes of acute febrile illness. Although the incidence of eschar in acute scrub typhus can range from 10 to 90%, these may be easily overlooked.

Since it can affect almost every organ system in the body, even with a high index of clinical suspicion and the best clinical knowledge, diagnosis remains difficult, and the timely initiation of appropriate therapy is sometimes delayed.

The following diseases should be kept in differentials:

• Malaria
• Dengue
• Leptospirosis
• Typhoid

Various studies for risk factors for severe scrub typhus have revealed that deranged laboratory parameters such as leukocytosis, thrombocytopenia, elevated transaminase, abnormal chest X-Ray, and serum creatinine levels are associated with a worse prognosis. Patients who presented with these features along with septic shock with concomitant hypothermia carry a higher risk factor for organ dysfunction and, ultimately, death compared to those who presented with fever alone. Severe pulmonary involvement, as in acute respiratory distress syndrome, is associated with higher mortality rates. Renal failure associated with patients with severe scrub typhus may be life-threatening, and a serum creatinine level >1.4mg% has been proposed to be an independent predictor of fatality in scrub typhus.

Lee et al., while conducting a retrospective epidemiological study, proposes that those who are managed in ICU who presented without an eschar along with higher APACHE II scores as independent risk factors associated with high mortality.[24] Also, Sonthayanon et al., in their study, have demonstrated that initial high loads of DNA of Scrub Typhus at the time of admission are positively correlated with higher mortality and a longer duration of illness.[25] However, due to the high-cost factor, it is of little practical value in resource-limited setups. In conclusion, prognostic indicators for severe scrub typhus infection cannot be established with the currently available evidence due to limited studies performed and its conflicting results. Mainly MODS in the form of ARDS, myocarditis, liver failure, acute renal failure, encephalitis in various combinations, and shock from vasculitis are common presentations of severe scrub typhus infection in which a delay in treatment poses a high mortality index sometimes as high as 30%.

Scrub Typhus associated with the development of respiratory complications such as ARDS and the presence of pneumonitis has been suggested to be a marker of severe disease.[12] Radiological abnormalities are relatively common, and abnormalities include bilateral reticular opacities and pleural effusion, in addition to cardiac abnormalities such as that of congestive heart failure.[26][27] Pleural effusions are seen in scrub typhus and could be transudative or exudative in nature. These are more likely to occur with older age, in patients with cardiac involvement or in patients with a reduced serum albumin level.[12] Complications, with respects to the systems, are described below:

Cardiac

The exact pathogenesis of cardiac involvement in scrub typhus and its contribution to the final outcome is unclear. However, reversible cardiomegaly is seen in chest radiography in more than 80% of patients in one autopsy series.[28] Various ECG changes have also been reported and can range from sinus tachycardia to relative bradycardia (more common in scrub typhus). There can also be atrial flutter or fibrillation, atrial standstill, heart block, PR-interval prolongation, ST-T change, prominent U-waves, and sometimes ventricular premature beats and Q-T prolongation.[29] Despite these varied manifestations in ECG, there is no conclusive evidence that suggests a greater severity or a worse outcome in the majority of the patients. In fact, ECG changes could simply be due to electrolyte imbalance or acidosis rather than a primary effect of Scrub Typhus infection. Also, myocarditis, which is a rare but severe manifestation of complicated scrub typhus, can present with a wide range of clinical manifestations, from nonspecific symptoms such as fever, myalgia, palpitation, and exertional dyspnoea to cardiogenic shock or sudden cardiac death.[13]

Neurological

The pathophysiology of nervous system involvement in Scrub Typhus infections may be multifactorial, although the main mechanism appears to be due to vasculitis and peri-vasculitis in the endothelial cells where the proliferation of O. tsutsugamushi occurs. Scrub typhus meningitis, as in other meningitis, can present with headache or nuchal rigidity along with an altered sensorium or focal neurological deficits. Examination of the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) may show pleocytosis, and sometimes results can mimic tuberculous meningitis, which can show lymphocytic pleocytosis with increased proteins.[10][30] Meningoencephalitis, which is the more severe form of CNS involvement, is characterized by presentation with altered sensorium and seizures.[30][31] These features had been observed in the setting of Multiorgan Dysfunction Syndrome (MODS), and case fatalities may be a resultant outcome of other systemic involvement. Rarely there may be unilateral or bilateral sixth nerve palsy. Generally, central nervous system involvement has a fair outcome with good treatment. In another spectrum, scrub typhus may also present with transient Parkinsonism, myoclonus, opsoclonus, trigeminal neuralgia, and visual hallucinations.

Gastrointestinal

Gastrointestinal symptoms usually develop 3 to 7days after initiation of fever. Scrub typhus can present as an acute abdomen without an underlying surgical cause, and features like diarrhea, pancreatitis, gastrointestinal bleeding, and liver dysfunction manifested in the form of raised transaminases and bilirubin are not uncommon(9). Abdominal pain, abdominal soreness, indigestion, nausea, and vomiting, along with splenomegaly, also happen frequently with scrub typhus.[16] The mechanism of these varied GI manifestations is not exactly known. However, like in other organ systems, vasculitis and perivasculitis of the small blood vessels by the causative organism has been implicated.[14] Hepatic dysfunction, as manifested by raised liver enzymes, is particularly common in patients without Escher.[15]

Renal

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is an under-recognized complication of scrub typhus, and numerous factors contribute towards its development. It is a predictor of mortality, and possible mechanisms include pre-renal failure due to septic shock, vasculitis of the renal vessels, rhabdomyolysis, and direct renal invasion.[32] However, the prevalence of comorbidities were the significant predictors in patients who developed AKI, and prompt treatment with anti rickettsial drug therapy and proper supportive care is very much essential to avert adverse outcomes.

Hemolytic

Rarely, scrub typhus may also manifest as disseminated intravascular coagulopathy and “Hemophagocytic syndrome,” which is a rare but serious complication of scrub typhus infection. Patients may also develop papilledema, which is a very common ocular manifestation that occurs during the second to the third week may persist till convalescence. In pregnant women, those affected with scrub typhus were reported to have preterm deliveries; there can be miscarriages and delivery of small for gestational age babies. In a more severe outcome, neonatal deaths also have been reported.

A primary physician can diagnose and treat majority cases, however, complicated scrub typhus cases need input from an infectious disease physician especially in handling drug-resistant cases.

The symptoms of scrub typhus infection are similar to many other diseases. Since it is endemic in certain parts of the world, travel history has to be provided to the health care provider if signs and symptoms of it develop after a visit to such areas. Laboratory tests are not always available, and initiation of treatment may be necessary before a confirmed diagnosis is made. With timely management, it is a disease that can be cured without complications.

The diagnosis and management of scrub typhus are complex, and this is best managed by an interprofessional team that includes an infectious disease expert, emergency department physician, general practitioner, and internist. The care is supportive of fluid, acetaminophen for fever, and an antibiotic Doxycycline or Azithromycin. A confirmed diagnosis is established by antigen detection, polymerase chain reaction, or serologic testing. No laboratory tests can predict the progression to severe disease.

The role of the primary care provider and nurse practitioner is to educate the traveler on the prevention of mite bites. This means covering exposed skin and avoidance of bites, particularly during farmhouse or field visits. The prognosis for untreated scrub typhus is abysmal, but with proper care, most patients can survive, albeit with residual multisystem organ damage.