COVID-19 pandemic in Japan
| COVID-19 pandemic in Japan | |
|---|---|
 Confirmed cases per 100,000 residents by prefecture[lower-alpha 1] | |
| Disease | COVID-19 |
| Virus strain | SARS-CoV-2 |
| Location | Japan |
| First outbreak | Wuhan, Hubei, China |
| Index case | Kanagawa Prefecture |
| Arrival date | 16 January 2020 (2 years, 1 month and 3 days) |
| Confirmed cases | 4,337,780[1] |
| Recovered | 1,712,555[2] |
Deaths | 21,467[1] |
| Fatality rate | 0.49% |
| Vaccinations | |
| Government website | |
| Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare (in Japanese) | |
The COVID-19 pandemic in Japan is part of the worldwide pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). The Japanese government confirmed the country's first case of the disease on 16 January 2020 in a resident of Kanagawa Prefecture who had returned from Wuhan, China.[3] The first known death from COVID-19 was recorded in Japan on 14 February 2020. Both were followed by a second outbreak introduced by travellers and returnees from Europe and the United States between 11 March 2020 and 23 March 2020.[4][5] According to the National Institute of Infectious Diseases, the majority of viruses spreading in the country derive from the European type, while those of the Wuhan type began disappearing in March 2020.[6][7][8]
On 5 October 2020, the number of confirmed cases in Japan exceeded the number of confirmed cases in China, and at the end of the month, the number of confirmed cases in the country crossed the 100,000-mark. The number of confirmed cases in Japan also crossed the 200,000-mark on 22 December 2020, the 300,000-mark on 14 January 2021, the 400,000-mark on 6 February 2021, the 500,000-mark on 11 April 2021, the 600,000-mark on 3 May 2021, the 700,000-mark on 21 May 2021, the 800,000-mark on 2 July 2021 and the 900,000-mark on 30 July 2021. At the end of 2020, there were about 230,000 COVID-19 cases in the country, nearly 2.7 times the number of COVID-19 cases in China.[9] On 16 January 2021, the first anniversary of the beginning of the pandemic in Japan was commemorated. It was two days after the number of confirmed cases in the country exceeded 300,000. On 27 April 2021, the number of deaths in Japan crossed the 10,000-mark. The number of confirmed cases in the country exceeded the number of confirmed cases in Portugal on 6 August 2021 and crossed the one-million-mark the following day.[10] By the time the Tokyo Olympics ended, there were more than a million cases in Japan. On 25 September 2021, the number of confirmed cases in the country exceeded the number of confirmed cases in Czechia. More than a week later, on 5 October 2021, the first anniversary of the day when the number of confirmed cases in Japan exceeded the number of confirmed cases in China was commemorated.
Tokyo is the most affected prefecture in Japan, with nearly 380,000 cases. The country also joined the list of 40 countries with the most COVID-19 cases on 9 January 2021, a few months after becoming the most affected country in East Asia by overtaking China in terms of the number of infections. About seven months later, on 14 August 2021, Japan joined the list of 30 countries with the most COVID-19 cases, a week after the number of confirmed cases in the country exceeded a million. On 15 September 2021, Japan joined the list of 25 countries with the most COVID-19 cases. Five weeks later, on 20 October 2021, the country left the list of 25 countries with the most COVID-19 cases. On a global scale, cases in Japan constitute about 0.7% of global cases.
The COVID-19 vaccination in Japan began on 17 February 2021, more than a month after the first anniversary of the beginning of the pandemic in the country was commemorated. As of 22 October 2021, about 96.4 million people in Japan received at least one dose of the COVID-19 vaccine while about 86.9 million were fully vaccinated.
The Japanese government adopted various measures to limit or prevent the outbreak. On 30 January 2020, former prime minister Shinzo Abe established the Japan Anti-Coronavirus National Task Force to oversee the government's response to the pandemic.[11][12] On 27 February 2020, he requested the temporary closure of all Japanese elementary, junior high, and high schools until early April 2020.[13] On 7 April 2020, Abe proclaimed a one-month state of emergency for Tokyo and the prefectures of Kanagawa, Saitama, Chiba, Osaka, Hyogo, and Fukuoka.[14] On 16 April 2020, the declaration was extended to the rest of the country for an indefinite period.[15] The state of emergency was lifted in an increasing number of prefectures during May 2020, extending to the whole country by 25 May 2020.[16]
On 15 August 2020, the 75th anniversary of the Japanese surrender in World War II was commemorated in badly-hit Tokyo. It was three days after the number of cases in Japan exceeded 50,000.
On 7 January 2021, Suga declared a state of emergency for Tokyo and the prefectures of Chiba, Saitama and Kanagawa effective from 8 January until 7 February.[17] Japan's death rate per capita from coronavirus is one of the lowest in the developed world, despite its aging population. Factors speculated to explain this include the government response, a milder strain of the virus, cultural habits such as bowing etiquette and wearing face masks, hand washing with sanitizing equipment, a protective genetic trait, and a relative immunity conferred by the mandatory BCG tuberculosis vaccine.[18] In December 2021, the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare reported the number of excess deaths through July. The excess death toll was 12000 in COVID-19 and 11000 from natural causes due to the aging of the population, but the death toll from pneumonia fell by 5000 as a result of infection control measures taken by people.[19]
The pandemic continued to be a concern for the 2020 Summer Olympics. Although the Japanese government and the International Olympic Committee negotiated its postponement until 2021, reports concluded that a cancellation of the games was still an option – although prime minister Yoshihide Suga dismissed the idea of it happening.[20] In the end, the Olympics went ahead, with sports events running between 23 July and 8 August 2021 and multiple restrictions in place to avoid the breakouts of the virus.[21] Japan suffered a massive surge in new cases due to the Tokyo Olympics; there were nearly 860,000 cases in the country at the beginning of the Tokyo Olympics.
Timeline
Japan is one of the countries with at least a million COVID-19 cases, as well as the only country in East Asia with at least a million COVID-19 cases. At the beginning of the Tokyo Olympics, there were nearly 860,000 cases in the country.
The COVID-19 pandemic in Japan can be divided into five waves based on the genome sequence of the country's COVID-19 virus.[6][7][22][23] The National Institute of Infectious Diseases (NIID) of Japan has determined from its genetic research that the COVID-19 variant of the first wave is derived from the Wuhan type that is prevalent in patients from China and other countries in East Asia. After entering Japan in January 2020 through travelers and returnees from China, the virus caused numerous infection clusters across the country before beginning to subside in March. Japanese medical surveillance confirmed its first case of the virus on 16 January 2020 in a resident of Kanagawa Prefecture who had returned from Wuhan.[3][24][25] On 14 February 2020, the country confirmed the first COVID-19 death.
The first wave was followed by a second one that originated from a COVID-19 variant of the European type that is traced back to early patients from France, Italy, Sweden, and the United Kingdom.[6][23] Japanese medical surveillance detected the second wave on 26 March 2020 when the government's expert panel concluded the likelihood of a new outbreak caused by travelers and returnees from Europe and the United States between 11 March 2020 and 23 March 2020.[4][5] The NIID has established that the majority of viruses spreading in Japan since March is the European type. This has led it to conclude that the data "strongly suggests" that the Japanese government has succeeded in containing the Wuhan variant and that it is the European variant that is spreading across the country.[26]
In terms of the number of confirmed COVID-19 cases, Japan overtook China on 5 October 2020 and became the most affected country in East Asia. The country also reached the first two grim milestones of 100,000 COVID-19 cases at the end of October 2020 and 200,000 cases on 22 December 2020. At the end of 2020, there were about 230,000 cases in Japan, which was nearly 2.7 times the number of cases in China. On 14 January 2021, the country reached the third grim milestone of 300,000 cases, two days before the first anniversary of the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic. Six days later, Japan overtook China in terms of the number of COVID-19 deaths. The country also reached the fourth grim milestone of 400,000 cases on 6 February 2021.[27] About two months later, on 11 April 2021, Japan reached the fifth grim milestone of 500,000 cases. The total number of COVID-19 deaths in the country exceeded 10,000 on 27 April 2021. On 3 May 2021, Japan reached the sixth grim milestone of 600,000 cases. About two weeks later, the country reached the seventh grim milestone of 700,000 cases. Japan also reached the eighth grim milestone of 800,000 cases on 2 July 2021, three weeks before the opening ceremony of the rescheduled Tokyo Olympics. Four weeks later, the country reached the ninth grim milestone of 900,000 cases. It was a week after the Tokyo Olympics began. Japan also overtook Portugal in terms of the number of cases on 6 August 2021, two days before the closing ceremony of the Tokyo Olympics. On 7 August 2021, the country reached the tenth grim milestone of a million cases. The following day, there were more than a million cases in Japan by the time the Tokyo Olympics ended. On 25 September 2021, the country overtook Czechia in terms of the number of cases.
On 30 July 2021, there were more than 10,000 new confirmed cases of coronavirus reported as the country experienced a fifth wave of infections.[28]
Statistics
Cummulative
No. of total confirmed cases
No. of total deaths
No. of total cases by age groups
Daily
No. of new cases per day
No. of new deaths per day
No. of total active cases per day
Case fatality rate
The trend of case fatality rate for COVID-19 from 16 January, the day first case in the country was recorded.[29]
| Case fatality rate in Japan | |
| Case fatality rate | |
Government response
Phase 1: Containment
The initial response of the Japanese government to the COVID-19 outbreak was a policy of containment that focused on the repatriation of Japanese citizens from Wuhan, the point of origin of the pandemic, and the introduction of new border control regulations.[30]
On 24 January 2020, Abe convened the Ministerial Meeting on Countermeasures Related to the Novel Coronavirus at the Prime Minister's Office with members of his Cabinet in response to a statement by the World Health Organization (WHO) confirming human-to-human transmission of the coronavirus. Abe announced that he would introduce appropriate countermeasures to the disease in coordination with the NIID.[31]
On 27 January 2020, Abe designated the new coronavirus as an "infectious disease" under the Infectious Diseases Control Law, which allows the government to order patients with COVID-19 to undergo hospitalization. He also designated the disease as a "quarantinable infectious disease" under the Quarantine Act, which allows the government to quarantine people suspected of infection and order them to undergo diagnosis and treatment.[32]
On 30 January 2020, Abe announced the establishment of the "Novel Coronavirus Response Headquarters" (新型コロナウイルス感染症対策本部), which meets at the Prime Minister's Official Residence and is run by a task force led by Deputy Chief Cabinet Secretary for Crisis Management Okita Yoshiki.[33][11] The initial roster of the task force includes 36 high-ranking bureaucrats from several of the Ministries of Japan. The headquarters acts as the site of Abe's decision-making process on the country's virus countermeasures.
On 31 January 2020, Abe announced that the government was prioritizing the repatriation of Japanese citizens from Hubei Province. Officials negotiated with Chinese authorities to dispatch five chartered flights to Wuhan from 29 January 2020 to 17 February 2020.[30]
On 1 February 2020, the Japanese government enacted restrictions to deny entry to foreign citizens who had visited Hubei Province within 14 days and to those with a Chinese passport issued from there.[34] On 12 February 2020, it expanded those restrictions to anyone who had a recent travel history to and from Zhejiang Province or had a Chinese passport issued from there.[35]
On 5 February 2020, Abe invoked the Quarantine Act to place the cruise ship Diamond Princess under quarantine in Yokohama. Quarantine officers were dispatched to the ship to prevent the disembarkation of crew and passengers, and to escort infected patients to medical facilities.[36]
On 6 February 2020, Abe invoked the Immigration Control and Refugee Act to deny entry to the cruise ship MS Westerdam from Hong Kong after one of its passengers tested positive for COVID-19.[37]
Reinforcement of medical service system
After the COVID-19 outbreak on the cruise ship Diamond Princess, the Japanese government shifted its focus from a policy of containment to one of prevention and treatment because it anticipated increasing community spread within Japan. This policy prioritized the creation of a COVID-19 testing and consultation system based on the NIID and the government's 83 existing municipal and prefectural public health institutions that are separate from the civilian hospital system. The new system handles the transfer of COVID-19 patients to mainstream medical facilities to facilitate patient flow, triage, and the management of limited testing kits on their behalf to prevent a rush of infected and uninfected patients from overwhelming healthcare providers and transmitting diseases to them. By regulating COVID-19 testing at the national level, the Abe Administration integrated the activities of the national government, local governments, medical professionals, business operators, and the public in treating the disease.[32]
On 1 February 2020, the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare instructed municipal and prefectural governments to establish specialized COVID-19 consultation centers and outpatient wards at their local public health facilities within the first half of the month.[38] Such wards would provide medical examinations and testing for suspected carriers of the disease to protect general hospitals from infection.[38]
On 5 February 2020, Abe announced that the government would begin preparations to strengthen COVID-19 testing capabilities at the NIID and 83 municipal and prefectural public health institutions that are designated by the government as official testing sites. Without a uniform diagnosis kit for the disease, the government has relied on polymerase chain reaction (PCR) tests to check for infections. As few mainstream medical facilities in Japan can conduct PCR tests, Abe also promised to increase the number of institutions with such kits, including universities and private companies.[36]
On 12 February 2020, Abe announced that the government would expand the scope of COVID-19 testing to include patients with symptoms based on the discretion of local governments. Previously, testing was restricted to those with a history of traveling to Hubei Province.[39][40] On the same day, the Ministry of Health and NIID contracted SRL Inc to handle PCR clinical laboratory testing.[41] Since then, the government has partnered with additional private companies to expand laboratory testing capabilities and to work towards the development of a rapid testing kit.[42]
On 14 February 2020, Abe introduced the government's coronavirus consultation system to coordinate medical testing and responses with the public. The Ministry of Health, Labour, and Welfare worked with local governments to establish 536 consultation centers that covered every prefecture within the country to provide citizens with instructions on how to receive COVID-19 testing and treatment. The general public needs to contact a consultation center by phone to get tested at one of the government's specialized outpatient wards (帰国者・接触者外来).[43][44]
On 16 February 2020, Abe convened the government's first Novel Coronavirus Expert Meeting (新型コロナウイルス感染症対策専門家会議) at the Prime Minister's Office to draft national guidelines for COVID-19 testing and treatment.[45] The meeting was chaired by Dr. Wakita Takaji, Director of the NIID, who brought together ten public health experts and medical professionals from across Japan to coordinate a response to the virus with Abe and the government's coronavirus task force in a roundtable format. The main concern of the Japanese medical establishment was overcrowding of hospitals by uninfected patients with light cold symptoms who believed that they had COVID-19. Medical representatives claimed that such a panic would strain medical resources and risk exposing those uninfected patients to the disease.[46][47]
On 17 February 2020, the Ministry of Health, Labour, and Welfare released national guidelines for COVID-19 testing to each of the municipal and prefectural governments and their public health centers.[48][49] It instructed doctors and public health nurses who staff the consultation centers to limit consultations to people with the following conditions: (1) cold symptoms and a fever of at least 37.5 °C (or need to take antipyretic medication) for over four days; and (2) extreme fatigue and breathing difficulties. The elderly, people with pre-existing conditions, and pregnant women with cold symptoms can receive consultation if they have had them for two days.[48]
On 22 February 2020, Health Minister Katsunobu Kato announced that the Japanese government was looking into the use of favipiravir, an anti-influenza medication developed by Fujifilm, to treat patients with COVID-19.[50][51]
Phase 2: Mitigation
On 23 February 2020, Abe instructed the government's coronavirus task force to quickly draft a comprehensive basic policy.[52] Health Minister Katsunobu Katō reconvened the medical experts from the first Novel Coronavirus Expert Meeting on 24 February 2020 to draft this policy.[53] During the meeting, the medical establishment presented its policy recommendations in the form of a views report (新型コロナウイルス感染症対策の基本方針の具体化に向けた見解), concluding that the most important objective must be the prevention of large-scale disease clusters and a decrease in outbreaks and deaths. They stated that it would not be possible for the government to prevent the spread of COVID-19 in Japan on a person-to-person basis, but that it might be possible to regulate the overall speed of infection.[54] They cited the next week or two as a "critical moment" determining whether the country would experience a large cluster that could result in the collapse of the medical system and socio-economic chaos. After reviewing and discussing the existing data on the disease, the committee stated that universal PCR testing was impossible due to a shortage of testing facilities and providers, and recommended that the government instead limit the application of available test kits to patients that are at a high risk of complications to stockpile for a large cluster. Participants also noted that Japan's medical facilities are vulnerable to "chaos," noting that many hospital beds and resources in the Tokyo area were already being used to care for the 700 infected patients from the Diamond Princess. They reiterated their warning that a rush of alarmed, uninfected outpatients with light symptoms of the disease could overwhelm hospitals and turn waiting rooms into "breeding grounds" for COVID-19.[55]
On 25 February 2020, the Abe Administration introduced the "Basic Policies for Novel Coronavirus Disease Control" (新型コロナウイルス感染症対策の基本方針) based on advice from the expert meeting.[56] After a spike of infections in Italy, Iran, and South Korea, Abe decided that the government's disease countermeasures would prioritize the prevention of large-scale clusters in Japan. This included controversial requests to suspend large-scale gatherings such as community events and school operations, as well as to limit patients with light cold symptoms from visiting medical facilities to prevent them from overwhelming hospital resources.[57]
First, the new policies advised local medical institutions that it is better for people with mild cold-like symptoms to rely on bed rest at home, rather than to seek medical help from clinics or hospitals. The policy also recommended that people at a higher risk of infection – including the elderly and patients with pre-existing conditions – avoid hospital visits for non-treatment purposes, such as by ordering prescriptions over the telephone instead of in person.[55]
Second, the new policies allowed general medical facilities in areas of a rapid COVID-19 outbreak to accept patients suspected of infection. Before this, patients could only get tested at specialized clinics after making an appointment with consultation centers to prevent the transmission of the disease. Government officials revised the previous policy after acknowledging that such specialized institutions would be overwhelmed during a large cluster.[55]
Third, the policy asked those with any cold symptoms to take time off from work and avoid leaving their homes. Government officials urged companies to let employees work from home and commute at off-peak hours. The Japanese government also made an official request to local governments and businesses to cancel large-scale events.[55]
On 27 February 2020, Abe requested the closure of all schools from 2 March 2020 to the end of spring vacations, which usually conclude in early April. The next day, the Japanese government announced plans to create a fund to help companies subsidize workers who need to take days off to look after their children while schools are closed.[58]
On 27 February 2020, the Japanese government also announced plans to expand the national health insurance system so that it covers COVID-19 tests.[59]
On 9 March 2020, the Ministry of Health reconvened the Expert Meeting after the two weeks "critical moment." The panel of medical experts concluded that Japan was currently not on track to experience a large-scale cluster, but stated that there was a two-week time lag in analyzing COVID-19 trends and that the country would continue to see more infections. Consequently, the participants asked the government to remain vigilant in quickly identifying and containing smaller clusters. With more COVID-19 outbreaks around the world, the panel also proposed that new infections from abroad could initiate a "second wave" of the disease in Japan.[60][61]
On 9 March 2020, the Health Ministry published a disease forecast for each prefecture and instructed local governments to prepare their hospitals to accommodate their patient estimates. It predicted that the virus peak in each prefecture would occur three months after the first reported case of local transmission. The Ministry estimated that at the peak Tokyo would see 45,400 outpatients and 20,500 inpatients per day, of whom 700 would be in severe condition. For Hokkaido, the figure was 18,300 outpatients and 10,200 inpatients daily, of whom about 340 would be severe.[62]
State of Emergency
On 5 February 2020, the Abe Administration's coronavirus task force initiated a political debate on the introduction of emergency measures to combat the COVID-19 outbreak a day after the British cruise ship Diamond Princess was asked to quarantine. The initial debate focused on constitutional reform due to the task force's apprehension that the Japanese Constitution may restrict the government's ability to enact such compulsory measures as quarantines on the grounds that it violated human rights. After lawmakers representing almost all of the major political parties – including the Jimintō, Rikken-minshutō, and Kokumin-minshutō – voiced their strong opposition towards this proposal and asserted that the Constitution allowed for emergency measures, the Abe administration moved forward with legislative reform instead.[63]
On 5 March 2020, Abe introduced a draft amendment to the Special Measures Act to Counter New Types of Influenza of 2012 to extend the law's emergency measures for an influenza outbreak to include COVID-19. He met separately with the heads of five opposition parties on 4 March 2020 to promote a "united front" in passing the reforms. The National Diet passed the amendment on 13 March 2020, making it effective for the next two years.[64][65] The amendment allows the Prime Minister to declare a "state of emergency" in specific areas where COVID-19 poses a grave threat to the lives and economic livelihood of residents. During such a period, governors of affected areas will receive the following powers: (1) to instruct residents to avoid unnecessary outings unless they are workers in such essential services like health care and public transportation; (2) to restrict the use or request the temporary closure of businesses and facilities, including schools, social welfare facilities, theatres, music venues, and sports stadiums; (3) to expropriate private land and buildings to erect new hospitals; and (4) to requisition medical supplies and food from companies that refuse to sell them, punish those that hoard or do not comply, and force firms to help transport emergency goods.[66]
Under the law, the Japanese government does not have the authority to enforce citywide lockdowns. Apart from individual quarantine measures, officials cannot restrict the movement of people to contain the virus. Consequently, compliance with government requests to restrict movements is based on "asking for public cooperation to ‘protect people’s lives’ and minimize further damage to [the economy]".[67]
On 25 March 2020, the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare announced that the daily number of confirmed cases in Tokyo increased from 17 to 41 cases compared to the day before.[68] Tokyo Governor Yuriko Koike held an emergency press conference in the late afternoon, stating that "the current situation is a serious situation where the number of infected people may explode." She requested residents to refrain from nonessential outings during the upcoming weekend.[69]
On 26 March 2020, the Ministry of Health reconvened the Novel Coronavirus Expert Meeting to review the new data. The panel of medical experts concluded that there was a "high probability of an expansion of infections" within the country due to an increase in the number of infected patients returning from Europe and the United States between 11 March 2020 and 23 March 2020.[4] In response to the statement, Abe instructed Economic Policy Minister Yasutoshi Nishimura to establish a special government task force to combat the spread of the virus.[70]
On 30 March 2020, Koike requested residents to refrain from nonessential outings for the next two weeks due to a continued increase in infections in Tokyo.[71] During a press conference held by the Japan Medical Association that same day, Kamayachi Satoshi of the government's panel of medical experts stated that his fellow panelists were divided over whether Abe should declare a state of emergency.[72]
On 1 April 2020, the Ministry of Health reconvened the Novel Coronavirus Expert Meeting to assess the current COVID-19 situation in Japan.[4]
On 2 April 2020, the Ministry of Health issued a notice that urged non-critical COVID-19 patients to move out of hospitals and stay at home or facilities designated by local governments.[73] Prefectural governors across the country began arranging accommodation for such patients through hotel operators and dormitories and issued official requests to the Japan Self-Defense Force for transportation services.[74][75]
On 3 April 2020, Professor Nishiura Hiroshi of the Ministry of Health's Cluster Response Team presented the initial findings of his COVID-19 epidemiological models to the public.[76] He concluded that the government could prevent an explosive spread of the virus in Japan if it adopted strict restrictions on outings that reduced social interactions by 80 percent, while such a spread would occur if the government adopted no measures or reduced social interactions by only 20 percent. Nishiura added that Tokyo was about 10 days to two weeks away from a large-scale outbreak.[77]
On 7 April 2020, Abe proclaimed a one-month state of emergency from 8 April to 6 May for Tokyo and the prefectures of Kanagawa, Saitama, Chiba, Osaka, Hyogo and Fukuoka.[78] He stated that the number of patients would peak in two weeks if the number of person-to-person contacts was reduced by 70 to 80 percent, and urged the public to stay at home to achieve this goal.[79]
On 10 April 2020, Koike announced closure requests for six categories of businesses in Tokyo.[80] They include amusement facilities, universities and cram schools, sports and recreation facilities, theatres, event and exhibition venues. and commercial facilities. She also asked restaurants to limit opening hours to between 5 a.m. and 8 p.m. and to stop serving alcohol at 7 p.m. The request was to take effect on 12 April 2020 and promised government subsidies for businesses that cooperated with it.
On 11 April 2020, Professor Nishiura presented the remaining findings of his COVID-19 epidemiological models.[81][82] He determined that reducing social interactions by 80 percent would decrease the COVID-19 infection rate to a manageable level in 15 days; by 70 percent in 34 days; by 65 percent in 70 days; and by 50 percent in three months. Any rate below 60 percent would increase the number of cases.
On 16 April 2020, Abe expanded the state of emergency declaration to include every prefecture within the country.[15] Later on 4 May 2020, Abe said that Japanese Cabinet would expand the state of emergency declaration until end of May 2020.[83] Then on 14 May 2020, Abe and his cabinet declared that Japanese Government decided to relieve the state of emergency declaration, excluding eight prefectures like Tokyo, Kyoto Prefecture.[84] Some media expressed doubts about why only some of the easing standards were released under the name of comprehensive judgment.
On 21 May 2020, the state of emergency is suspended in three prefectures in Kinki after they had cleared the threshold of having new infections below 0.5 per 100,000 people in the past week, resulting a total of 42 out of the 47 prefectures to be out of the state of emergency while five prefectures, such as Saitama, Kanagawa, Hokkaido, are waiting for lifting decision on 25 May 2020.[85][86]
Novel Coronavirus Expert Meeting
On 16 February 2020, Abe convened the Novel Coronavirus Expert Meeting to incorporate members of the Japanese medical community into his decision-making process.[45] The panel acts as the main medical advisory body of the Japanese government during the COVID-19 crisis.[87]
Chair
- Wakita Takaji (Director-General of the NIID)
Vice Chair
- Omi Shigeru (President of the Japan Community Health Care Organization)
Members
- Okabe Nobuhiko (Director of the Kawasaki Municipal Institute of Public Health)
- Oshitani Hitoshi (Former Infectious Disease Control Advisor at the WHO Western Pacific Regional Office)
- Kamayachi Satoshi (Executive Board Member of the Japan Medical Association)
- Kawaoka Yoshihiro (Professor of Virology at the University of Wisconsin-Madison and University of Tokyo)
- Kawana Akihiko (Professor of Internal Medicine at the National Defense Medical College)
- Suzuki Motoi (Director of the NIID Center of Infectious Disease Epidemiology)
- Tateda Kazuhiro (Professor of Microbiology and Infectious Disease at Toho University)
- Nakayama Hitomi (Social Worker and Lawyer at the Kasumigaseki-Sogo Law Offices)
- Muto Kaori (Professor of Cultural and Human Information Studies at the University of Tokyo)
- Yoshida Masaki (Professor of Internal Medicine at Jikei University School of Medicine)
Support measures
On 12 February 2020, Abe announced that the government would secure 500 billion yen for emergency lending and loan guarantees to small and medium enterprises affected by the COVID-19 outbreak.[88] He also declared that his Cabinet would set aside 15.3 billion yen from contingency funds to facilitate the donation of isolated virus samples to relevant research institutions across the globe.[89]
On 1 March 2020, Abe evoked the Act on Emergency Measures for Stabilizing Living Conditions of the Public to regulate the sale and distribution of facial masks in Hokkaido. Under this policy, the Japanese government instructed manufacturers to sell facial masks directly to the government, which would then deliver them to residents.[34] On 5 March 2020, the Japanese government announced that it is organizing an emergency package by using a 270 billion yen ($2.5 billion) reserve fund for the current fiscal year through March to contain the virus and minimize its impact on the economy.[90]
Three Cs (3つの密, Mittsu no Mitsu, "Three 'Close's"), also written Three C's or 3密 (San Mitsu), is a slogan originated by the Japanese government in 2020 in combating the COVID-19 pandemic.[91] The Three Cs were announced by the office of the Prime Minister of Japan on Twitter on 17 March 2020.[92] This followed work by the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare on how to prevent superspreader events and other clusters (クラスター), including the 25 February 2020 establishment of a Cluster Countermeasures Group within the ministry.[93] The slogan warns people to avoid three factors that contribute to clusters of infection:[94] Closed spaces (密閉) with poor ventilation; Crowded places (密集) with many people nearby; and Close-contact settings (密接) such as close-range conversations. On 16 July 2020, the WHO posted a recommendation to "Avoid the Three Cs", in terms very similar to those used in English by the Japanese government.[95]
Controversies and criticism
On 17 February 2020, the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare asked that those who have experienced fever over 37.5 °C for more than four days, in addition to those who experience severe symptoms such as lethargy and difficulty breathing, consult with the Return and Contact Consultation Centres immediately to determine whether testing is required.[96][97] However, some media outlets asserted that restrictive standards for testing would delay public health response to the pandemic, resulting in further spread of the disease.[98][99]
In early February, Masahiro Kami, a hematologist, chairman of the Institute for Healthcare Governance, and outside director of SBI Pharma Co., Ltd. and SBI Biotech Co., Ltd., criticized Japan's response to outbreaks of the disease onboard isolated cruise ships compared to that of Italy.[100]
In late February, several Japanese media outlets reported that there were people with fever or other symptoms who could not be tested through the consultation centre system and had become "test refugees" (検査難民).[101][102][103][104] Some of these cases involved patients with severe pneumonia.[105] Hematologist Masahiro Kami claimed that many patients were denied testing due to their mild symptoms and criticized the Japanese government for setting testing standards that were too high and for lacking a response to patient anxiety.[106]
On 26 February 2020, Minister of Health Katsunobu Kato stated in the National Diet that 6,300 samples were tested between 18 and 24 February, averaging 900 samples per day. Some representatives questioned the discrepancy between the actual number of people tested and the claim in the prior week that 3,800 samples could be tested per day.[107]
On the same day, more doctors reported that public health centers had refused to test some patients. The Japan Medical Association announced that it would start a nationwide investigation and plan to cooperate with the government to improve the situation.[108] The Ministry of Health also stated that it would look into the situation with the local governments.[109]
The strict constraints on testing for the virus by Japanese health authorities drew accusations from critics such as Masahiro Kami that Abe wanted to "downplay the number of infections or patients because of the upcoming Olympics." It was reported that only a few public health facilities were authorized to test for the virus, after which the results could only be processed by five government-approved companies, which created a bottleneck forcing clinics to turn away even patients with high fevers. This has led some experts to question Japan's official case numbers. For example, Tobias Harris, of Teneo Intelligence in Washington, D.C., said: "You wonder, if they were testing nearly as much as South Korea is testing, what would the actual number be? How many cases are lurking and justare not being caught?"[98][110] Fact-checking in several media later proved that the news that the government had reduced the number of tests to curb the increase in the number of infected people for the Olympics was not accurate at all.[111][112]
Testing was still restricted to large hospitals in March 2020, with 52,000 tests, or 16% of the South Korean amount, performed that month. A decision to expand testing was made on 13 April 2020.[113] There were many articles in March that criticized the number of PCR tests in Japan as very small compared to South Korea.[114][115] According to data released by the Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare, Japanese authorities conducted a total of 15,655 PCR tests as of 17 March 2020, excluding tests conducted on those returning from China by charter flights and passengers on cruise ships.[116][117][118]
On 5 March 2020, Japan announced that it will strengthen quarantine for new entrants from China and South Korea, along with added areas of Iran to the target area. The Chinese government showed understanding for the decision, while the Korean government called the measures implemented by Japan "unreasonable and excessive."[119][120][121][122][123]
Various problems are arising in connection with the Emergency Supplementary Income policies promoted by the Japanese government. At first, there were many obstacles to the rapid driving force as the 300,000 yen per household policy was changed to the 100,000 yen per population policy. In addition, some uncomfortable parts make it easier to evaluate postal delivery applications faster than online applications. In the case of postal delivery, it is possible to apply for each household more smoothly, but when applying online, separate paperwork for inspection is required for each local government office. In addition, since the application process for management subsidies is complicated, there are also side effects of financial disadvantages for small business owners and individual business owners. The reason why the shortage of masks was difficult to eliminate and it took a long time to receive the benefits, was that the Individual Number system, which was well known as "My Personal ID Card Number System", was only used by about 16% of the population, meanwhile most of the work could be handled without Individual Number system due to people's hesitation against the privately problematic policy which gets into a troublesome settlement for protection of private problem without the supervision of the government.[124][125] The Individual Number is a system for the administration to identify individuals. Due to opposition from the opposition party and liberals who say that the national and local governments will get to know personal information, the Individual Number has not spread easily and is not obligatory to link with other personal information such as bank accounts.[126][127] On this topic, Representative Sanae Takaichi who leads Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications commented that they are considering to connect every single personal ID card Number and each single bank account for comfort usage of every citizen.[128][129]
Moreover, Prime Minister Abe's cloth mask distribution policy is considered problematic, leading to a lack of clarity in budgeting. Furthermore, one of the companies involved in mask production is suspected of being a ghost company. The issue of tax waste, as well as the government's problem of maintaining quality—which was the trigger—were also pointed out.[130][131] The company that was suspected of being a dummy company by some media outlets was a broker of a sole proprietor, who had imported masks manufactured in Vietnam using locally procured materials. Originally, he was promoting masks to Fukushima and Yamagata prefectures, but the Ministry of Health and Welfare, who had trouble finding a mask supplier due to a sudden decision, bought them.[130][131][132] Not only he, but also people and companies who were reported suspicious in the media or were rumored on social media were slandered online, and there were many nuisances to the company and their homes.[133][134][135]
Likewise, several news reports showed signs of missing numbers of infection statistics in Japan could be explained by other sources of statistics.[136][137][138] Furthermore, there would be differences among several statistics of departments since there were several standards for statistics among regional directors and departments of Japanese Authorities using those statistics with other standards.[139]
The new method introduced by the Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare will count fewer COVID patients, and has resulted in bringing the numbers down the in numerous prefectures.[140][141]
Medical response
The medical task-force advising the government, known as the Novel Coronavirus Expert Meeting, has adopted a three-pronged strategy to contain and mitigate COVID-19 that includes: (1) early detection of and early response to clusters through contact tracing; (2) early patient diagnosis and enhancement of intensive care and the securing of a medical service system for the severely ill; and (3) behavior modification of citizens.[142] Medical experts have prioritized COVID-19 testing for the first two purposes while relying on the behavior modification of citizens rather than mass testing to prevent the spread of the virus at a large-scale level.[143]
Contact tracing
On 25 February 2020, the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare established the Cluster Response Team (クラスター対策班) in accordance with the Basic Policies for Novel Coronavirus Disease Control.[144] The purpose of the section is to identify and contain small-scale clusters of COVID-19 infections before they grow into mega-clusters. It is led by university professors Hitoshi Oshitani and Nishiura Hiroshi and consists of a contact tracing team and a surveillance team from the National Institute of Infectious Diseases (NIID), a data analysis team from Hokkaido University, a risk management team from Tohoku University, and an administration team.[145] Whenever a local government determines the existence of a cluster from hospital reports, the Ministry of Health dispatches the section to the area to conduct an epidemiological survey and contact tracing in coordination with members of the local public health center. After the teams determine the source of infection, the ministry and local government officials enact countermeasures to locate, test, and place under medical surveillance anybody who may have come into contact with an infected person. They can also file requests to suspend infected businesses or restrict events from taking place there.[145]
From its contract tracing findings, the Ministry of Health discovered that 80% of infected people did not transmit COVID-19 to another person. The Ministry also determined that patients that did infect another person tended to spread it to multiple people and form infection clusters when they were in certain environments.[146] According to one of the experts, Kawaoka Yoshihiro, "[This meant that] you don’t need to trace every single person who’s been infected if you can trace the cluster. If you do nothing, the cluster will grow out of control. But as long as you identify a cluster small enough to contain, then the virus will die out."[147]
On 9 March 2020, the medical experts reviewed the data from the Cluster Response Team's work and further refined its definition of a high-risk environment as a place with the overlapping "three Cs" (three close-contact situations (三つの密, mittsu no mitsu)): (1) closed spaces with poor ventilation; (2) crowded places with many people nearby; and (3) close-contact settings such as close-range conversations.[148] They identified gyms, live music clubs, exhibition conferences, social gatherings, and yakatabune as examples of such places. The experts also theorized that crowded trains did not form clusters because people riding public transportation in Japan usually do not engage in conversations.[148]
During times when the number of infected patients rises to such an extent that individual contract tracing alone cannot contain a COVID-19 outbreak, the government will request the broad closure of such high-risk businesses.[149]
During the initial stages of the outbreak, medical experts recommended the government to focus on COVID-19 testing for contact tracing purposes and patients with the following symptoms: (1) cold symptoms and a fever of at least 37.5 °C (or need to take antipyretic medication) for over four days; and (2) extreme fatigue and breathing difficulties.[49] The elderly, people with pre-existing conditions, and pregnant women with cold symptoms could be tested if they had them for two days.[49][48] The country's high number of computed tomography (CT) scanners (111.49 per million people) allows them to confirm suspicious pneumonia cases and begin treatment before testing them for COVID-19.
On 1 April 2020, medical experts requested the government to secure more hospital beds for patients and transfer those with mild or no symptoms to outside housing facilities to focus treatment on the severely-ill.[4]
Behavior modification of citizens
The Japanese government's medical task-force anticipates multiple waves of COVID-19 to arrive in the country for at least the next three years, with each one prompting the public to engage in a cycle of restricting and easing movement.[147] Under the current law, the Prime Minister can restrict movement by declaring a "state of emergency" in specific areas where COVID-19 poses a grave threat to residents. During such periods, the governors of affected areas can request citizens to avoid unnecessary outings and temporarily close certain businesses and facilities. Since the government cannot enact compulsory measures to enforce these requests, it has instead embarked on a social engineering program to train its citizens to comply with them on a voluntary basis during current and future state of emergencies.[147]
To reduce person-to-person contact, the government has instructed the public to refrain from going to high-risk environments (the Three Cs: closed spaces, crowded places, and close-contact settings) and events involving movement between different areas of the country.[149] It emphasized extreme caution when coming in contact with the elderly. The government also promoted such work-style reforms as teleworking and staggering commuting hours, while improving the country's distance learning infrastructure for children.[149]
On 4 May 2020, the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare unveiled its program to create a "new lifestyle" (新しい生活様式) for the country's citizenry that is to be practiced every day on a long-term basis.[150][151] Several elements of the lifestyle include behavior changes demanded under the state of emergency, such as avoiding high-risk environments and long-distance travelling. However, the program expands these precautions to cover more mundane activities by requesting people to engage in such activities as wearing masks during all conversations, refraining from talking when using public transportation, and eating next to one another rather than facing one another.[149][150]
Vaccination
COVID-19 vaccination in Japan started later than in most other major economies.[152] The country has frequently been regarded as "slow" in its vaccination efforts.[153][154]
Japan has so far approved Pfizer–BioNTech, Moderna and Oxford–AstraZeneca for use. In early October 2021, data from the government shows that 60.9% of people have had their second dose, while 71.3% have received first shot.[155] In late October, according to the government, they reached 70% population fully vaccinated.[156]Regional developments
The following are examples of the spread of infections for six of the eight regions in Japan.
Hokkaido
The first case was identified in Hokkaido on 28 January 2020,[157][158] and the first case of an infected person in Hokkaido was on 14 February 2020.[157][159] To limit the spread of infection, the governor of Hokkaido, Naomichi Suzuki, announced the Declaration of a New Coronavirus Emergency on 28 February 2020, calling on locals to refrain from going out.[160]
Tōhoku
The Tōhoku region had been relatively unaffected during the earlier waves of infections. As late as 10 July 2020, Iwate Prefecture had not reported any cases.[161] By 3 April 2021, the total number of reported COVID-19 cases in the region had reached 12,076, with 6,423 of those cases having been reported in Miyagi Prefecture, 4,196 of which were from the city of Sendai.[162][163][164][165][166][167]
Kantō
On 13 February 2020, three confirmed cases were announced in the Kanto region, and one case was confirmed in each of Kanagawa, Tokyo, and Chiba. On 6 March 2020, it was confirmed that 121 infected people were reported in 5 prefectures, including Tochigi and Saitama. On 21 March 2020, a total of 136 people were identified as infected in Tokyo, and a total of 311 people were confirmed in the Kanto region.
Chūbu
The first case was identified in Aichi Prefecture on 26 January 2020,[168] and the first case of an infected person in Aichi was on 14 February 2020.[168] As the virus spread, Governor Omura of recognized that there were two clusters in the prefecture, mainly in Nagoya.[169] He emphasized the need to work with the Nagoya City Government to prevent the spread of infection.[169]
Kansai
The Osaka model (Japanese: 大阪モデル, Hepburn: Ōsaka moderu) of self-restraint (自粛, Jishuku) was widely praised in Japan.[170] The proactive measures enacted by Governor Yoshimura in Osaka Prefecture have been effective in mitigating the effects of the pandemic compared to other regions of Japan with minimal disruptions to education or the economy. Governors of other prefectures have followed this example. As the second-largest population center in Japan with the highest population density in the Kansai region, this has been effective to reduce the spread of the virus in this region. Reduced international tourism to Kyoto due to travel restrictions and cancellations of tour groups has also reduced the spread of the virus but the tourism sector is struggling as a result.[171]
Kyushu
On 24 May 2020, Fukuoka Prefecture announced a total of four confirmed cases, including one re-positive case confirmed in Fukuoka City, and three infected cases related to Kitakyushu City.[172] Unfortunately for Kyushu, Kagoshima announced on 2 July 2020 that it has newly confirmed the infection with coronavirus in 9 men and women.[173] On the other hand, Fukuoka Prefecture announced on the 2nd that four new coronavirus infections were confirmed.[173] In August 2020, Fukuoka remained most seriously affected with nearly four thousand cases and over forty deaths.[174] In January 2021, cases in Fukuoka rose to over 13,000 and 150 deaths.[174]
Socio-economic impact
Abe said that "the new coronavirus is having a major impact on tourism, the economy and our society as a whole",[175][176] throwing Japan into a recession. In Q1 2020 GDP there was 0.9 contraction, whereas in Q4 2019 GDP there was 1.9 contraction.[177] During the early stages of the pandemic, face masks sold out across the nation and new stocks were quickly depleted.[178] Pressure was placed on the healthcare system as demands for medical checkups increased.[179] Chinese people were reported to have suffered increased discrimination.[180]
Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, logistics and supply chains from Chinese factories were disrupted, leading to complaints from certain Japanese manufacturers.[181] Abe considered using emergency funds to mitigate the outbreak's impact on tourism, 40% of which is by Chinese nationals.[182] S&P Global noted that the worst-hit stocks were for travel, cosmetics and retail companies, which are most exposed to Chinese tourism.[183] Video game developer Nintendo issued a statement apologizing for delays in shipments of Nintendo Switch hardware, attributing it to the coronavirus outbreak in China, where much of the company's manufacturing is located.[184] On the same day the Nagoya Expressway Public Corporation announced plans to temporarily close some toll gates and let employees work from their homes after an employee staffing the toll gates was diagnosed positive for SARS-CoV-2.[185] Due to personnel shortages, six toll gates on the Tōkai and Manba routes of the expressway network were closed over the following weekend.[185]
In September 2020, the central government declared its intent to encourage telecommuting from the country's rural areas to combat the spread of the virus by subsidizing municipalities that embrace the arrangement. The proposed subsidy of 15 billion yen would apply to towns and cities outside of the Greater Tokyo Area.[186] The remote work subsidy was made available to eligible municipalities at the onset of FY 2021 on 1 April 2021.[187]
Sporting events
The outbreak has affected professional sports in Japan. Nippon Professional Baseball's preseason games and the Haru Basho sumo tournament in Osaka were announced to be held behind closed doors, while the J.League football and Top League rugby suspended or postponed play entirely.[188] On the weekend of 29 February 2020, the Japan Racing Association closed its horse racing meets to spectators and off-track betting until further notice, but continued to offer wagering by phone and online.[189]
The outbreak has affected school sport in Japan. Health concerns led to sporting events such as baseball, basketball, and soccer in school being suspended or postponed, due to unexpected postponement of education generally.
Two Yomiuri Giants players have tested positive for the new coronavirus, the Central League team announced on 3 June 2020, casting a shadow over Nippon Professional Baseball's plan to start the 2020 season on 19 June 2020.[190]
Tokyo 2020 Summer Olympics
The expansion of COVID-19 into a global pandemic led to concerns over the 2020 Summer Olympics and Paralympics in Tokyo, which continue to this day. In March 2020, it was announced that the Games would be postponed by a year, for the first time in the history of the modern Olympics.[191][192] The Tokyo Olympics took place from 23 July to 8 August 2021.
There were 71 cases linked to the 2020 Summer Olympics since 17 July 2021.[193] The Tokyo Olympics triggered a massive surge in new cases in Japan.
Entertainment
On 26 February 2020, Abe suggested that major sporting, cultural and other events should be cancelled, delayed or scaled down for about two weeks amid the COVID-19 pandemic.[194] As a result, J-pop groups Perfume and Exile cancelled their concerts scheduled that night at Tokyo Dome and Kyocera Dome Osaka, respectively, both of which have a capacity of 55,000.[195] On 27 February 2020, AnimeJapan 2020, originally scheduled to be held in Tokyo Big Sight in late March, was cancelled.[196]
A number of major amusement parks announced temporary closures. On 28 February 2020, Tokyo Disneyland, Tokyo DisneySea and Tokyo Disney Resort were temporarily closed from 29 February 2020.[197][198] Universal Studios Japan also announced a closure the same day.[199] By mid-March, some attractions began to partially reopen, with Huis Ten Bosch and Legoland Japan Resort reopening with limited services (outdoor attractions only, visitors subject to temperature checks before entering) on 23 March 2020.[200][201] However, the Disney parks and Universal Studios Japan delayed their re-openings until mid-to-late April.[199][202][203] Later on, at the beginning of July 2020, Tokyo DisneySea and Tokyo Disneyland reopened after they reported their plan on 25 June 2020.[204]
Affected by the shortage of outsourced staff due to the COVID-19 outbreak, many Japanese animated films and TV shows announced changes or postponed broadcasts due to production problems, including A Certain Scientific Railgun T (deferred for broadcast, changed to rebroadcast), Asteroid in Love, A3! (Delay extension), Kukuriraige -Sanxingdui Fantasy- (Delay extension), etc.[205][206] At the end of March 2020, TV Asahi announced that Rio Komiya, who plays Jūru Atsuta in the tokusatsu series Mashin Sentai Kiramager, had tested positive for COVID-19.[207][208] While production had been suspended, it was stated that there were enough completed episodes to last through 10 May.[209][210]
On 25 March 2020, it was announced that Japanese comedian Ken Shimura had tested positive for COVID-19.[211][212] Shimura died on 29 March 2020 at the age of 70.[213][214]
Not only anime series but also drama series have been silently refrained production to prevent the spread of infection, and most of telecasting stations are transmitting works from past years. In Nippon TV, the airing schedule of Haken no Hinkaku 2, starring Ryoko Shinohara and Yo Oizumi, has been postponed, as well as the airing schedule of Miman Keisatsu, starring Kento Nakajima and Sho Hirano, has been postponed.[215] In Tokyo Broadcasting System Television, the airing schedule of MIU404, starring Gen Hoshino and Gou Ayano, has been postponed, as well as the airing schedule for Hanzawa Naoki 2, starring Masato Sakai and Mitsuhiro Oikawa, has been postponed.[216] In Fuji TV, The schedule for airing the manga-based medical drama series in the second quarter, starring Satomi Ishihara and Nanase Nishino, has been postponed,[217] as well as the airing schedule for Suits Season 2, starring Yuto Nakajima and Yuko Araki, has been suspended.[218] Meanwhile, NHK announced that the schedule for three drama series would be postponed under the influence of the new coronavirus.[219] "The broadcast date will be announced on the program guide and website as soon as it is decided," said the station.[220]
On 19 April 2020, TV Tokyo, MediaNet & ShoPro announced that the Pokémon anime series would be going on hiatus, with production temporarily suspended. Reruns of old episodes began airing from 26 April 2020 to 31 May 2020; the staff announced that the new episodes would return on 7 June 2020.[221] In addition, production for the Toei Animation productions were suspended due to the pandemic after the following episodes aired including Healin' Good PreCure (Episode 12) and Digimon Adventure: (Episode 3).[222] As of 19 April 2020, Fuji TV, Toei Animation confirmed that the One Piece anime series will be going on recess, with production temporarily postponing new episodes and reruns of older episodes taking its place.[222] On 26 April 2020, Nippon Animation announced on Saturday that the broadcast of new anime episodes of Chibi Maruko-chan anime series has been suspended for the time being due to disease outbreak of COVID-19 occurred in Tokyo, Japan.[223] At the time of 26 April 2020, there were a number of anime series with production pauses due to difficulties in supply and production, including some series like Black Clover, Boruto: Naruto Next Generations, Duel Masters King, Kingdom (Season 3), Major 2nd Season 2.
Festivals and contests
The following major festivals were cancelled: The triangle mark (△) would be cancelled in 2020 and 2021. The small circle mark (◌) cancelled on 2020, held on reduced scale on 2021.
|
|
The following major fireworks events were also canceled or considered to be postponed:The triangle mark (△) will be cancelled on 2020 and 2021
|
|
The following festivals were postponed:
- 2020 Sanja Matsuri Festival (三社祭), originally scheduled for 15–17 May, was changed to October in Tokyo[234]
- 2020 Japan Tree-planting Festival (全国植樹祭) in Shimane Prefecture, originally scheduled for 31 May 2020, was converted to online event held on May 30, 2021.
- 2020 Tohoku Kizuna Traditional Festival (東北絆祭り) in Yamagata City, originally schedule date for May 30 and 31, was changed to 22. 23 July 2021.
- 2020 Tochigi Autumn Traditional Festival (ja:とちぎ秋まつり), which held once per twice years in Tochigi City, originally schedule on November 6 to 7, that postpone to October or November 2021.
- 2021 Kofu Shingen Takeda Festival, original scheduled on early April, which postponement to November 2021.
The following major contests were canceled or postponed indefinitely:
- All Japan Kokeshi contest and exhibition in Shiroishi, Miyagi Prefecture
- All Japan chindonya contest in Toyama City
- Fukiage beach sand sculpture contest and exhibition in Minamisatsuma, Kagoshima Prefecture
- Arida Pottery Market in Saga Prefecture, originally scheduled for 29 April to 5 May, has been postponed indefinitely
- Daidogei World Cup in Shizuoka City, original schedule date on October 31 to November 3.
- Hikone Yuru-chara Festival, originally schedule held date November 6 and 7, Hikone Castle Park, Shiga Prefecture.
- 2021 World Masters Games, held in Kansai area, original schedule on May 14 to 30, which new schedule is indefinitely.
- According to Imperial Household Aagncy official confirmed report, the general public visit to Imperial New Year's event was cancelled in Imperial Palace in Tokyo, originally schedule date on January 2 on every year.
The following year-end and year-in countdown event place were cancelled:
- Shibuya Scramble Scuare in Tokyo
- Tokyo Disneyland, Tokyo Disneysea and Tokyo Disney Resort in Urayasu, Chiba Prefecture
- Nagashima Spa Land and Nabana village in Kuwana, Mie Prefecture.
- Universal Studios Japan in Osaka.
- Nima Sand Museum in Shimane Prefecture.
- Huis Ten Bosch in Sasebo, Nagasaki Prefecture.
Distance learning
On 27 February 2020, Prime Minister Shinzo Abe requested that all Japanese elementary, junior high, and high schools close until early April to help contain the virus.[6][235] This decision came days after the education board of Hokkaido called for the temporary closure of its 1,600 public and private schools.[236] Nursery schools were excluded from the nationwide closure request.[6] As of 5 March, 98.8 per cent of all municipally run elementary schools have complied with Abe's request, resulting in 18,923 school closures.[237]
Along with the school suspension, online education was being piloted in some areas where the health crisis was not severe, but there was a concern that the education gap was widening in each region due to the limited online environment in Japan. Due to the sudden public health crisis, school closures are taking place in the middle of school, and education gaps in each region and childcare problems in the home have led to difficulties in education. While there are promising plans to postpone the start of the new semester to September, centered on local politics, there are also opinions that some require a careful approach to changing the semester system. Those who promote semester change into September are pursuing a new semester change based on bridging regional gaps and meeting world standards, and those who ponder semester change argue that the online education environment needs to be rapidly updated by region before the semester change.[238][239]
Aid to China
On 26 January 2020, Japanese people donated a batch of face masks to Wuhan.[240] According to the Liberty Times of Taiwan, these were actually purchased by China,[241] but Japanese media and the Japanese Consulate General in Chongqing stated that it was a donation.[242][243]
On 3 February 2020, four organizations, the Japan Pharmaceutical NPO Corporation, the Japan Hubei Federation, Huobi Global, and Incuba Alpha, donated materials to Hubei.[244]
On 10 February 2020, the Liberal Democratic Party's Secretary-General Toshihiro Nikai said that the party would deduct 5,000 yen from the March funds from members of the party to support mainland China.[245]
Other
Due to prejudice and ignorance, social harassment is expanding concerning infectious diseases. Because of their worries about having contracted the virus, the number of cases where medical personnel's family commuting is restricted. There are increasing cases where small business owners have been forced to take self-sufficiency by neighbors who feel anxious and deprived.[246]
Between April and September 2020, restaurants accounted for 10% of all bankruptcies in Japan.[247] Ramen restaurants were particularly affected, with 34 chains filing for bankruptcy by September. Ramen restaurants are typically narrow and seat customers closely, making social distancing difficult.[247]
The pandemic seems to be the reason for the abrupt end to the slowly declining trend in suicides in Japan for the last 10 years. Since July 2020 their number increased significantly to record highs. Women bear the major part of this increase.[248]
Variants
Wild type Sars-Cov-2 was the virus that first arrived in Japan. From February through June 2020, B.1.1 was the main variant found in Japan.[249] From the end of June until mid-February, B.1.1.214 took over. In February and March, R.1 became common, but other variants were surpassing it by late June. Then around mid-March, the Alpha variant became dominant, and has been since. Now, Delta numbers seem to be rapidly rising. Alpha is believed to be more transmissible than wild type Sars-Cov-2, and may be more deadly. Delta is believed to be even more transmissible than Alpha. Identifying a sample as Delta requires full genome sequencing which is expensive and time-consuming, so the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare has been using the presence of the L452R mutation as a shorthand way of tracking probable Delta cases.[250]
| Cumulative # of cases of variants (as of 17 July 2021) | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Alpha | R.1 | L452R including Delta | Delta |
| 30,448[251] | 7,057[251] | 2,450[250] | 918[251] |
International travel restrictions
Restrictions on entry to Japan
On 3 April 2020, foreign travelers who had been in any of the following countries and regions within the past 14 days were barred from entering Japan. This travel ban covers all foreign nationals, including those holding Permanent Resident status. Foreign nationals with Special Permanent Resident status are not subject to immigration control under Article 5 of the Immigration Control Act 1951 and are therefore exempt.[252]
| Asia | Brunei, China, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Macau, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan, Thailand, Vietnam |
|---|---|
| Oceania | Australia, New Zealand |
| Middle East | Bahrain, Iran, Israel, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Turkey, United Arab Emirates |
| Europe | Albania, Andorra, Armenia, Austria, Belarus, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czechia, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Kosovo, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Moldova, Monaco, Montenegro, Netherlands, North Macedonia, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, San Marino, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Ukraine, United Kingdom, Vatican City |
| Africa | Côte d'Ivoire, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Egypt, Mauritius, Morocco, South Africa |
| North America | Canada, United States |
| Latin America & Caribbean | Antigua and Barbuda, Argentina, Barbados, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Panama, Peru, Saint Christopher and Nevis |
Japanese citizens and holders of Special Permanent Resident status may return to Japan from these countries but must undergo quarantine upon arrival until testing negative for COVID-19.
Restrictions on entry from Japan
The following countries and territories have restricted entry from Japan:[253]
Algeria
Angola
Antigua and Barbuda
Argentina: Flight suspension and suspension of all visas.[254][255]
Armenia.svg.png.webp)
Australia
Austria
Azerbaijan
Bahamas
Bahrain[3]
Bangladesh.svg.png.webp)
Belgium
Belize
Bhutan
Bolivia
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Botswana
Brazil
Brunei
Bulgaria
Burkina Faso
Burundi
Cameroon.svg.png.webp)
Canada
Cape Verde
Chad
Chile
China
Colombia
Comoros[256]
Cook Islands[3]
Costa Rica
Croatia
Cuba
Cyprus
Czech Republic
Democratic Republic of the Congo
Denmark
Dominica
Dominican Republic
Djibouti
East Timor
Ecuador
Egypt
El Salvador
Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea
Estonia
Eswatini
Ethiopia
Finland
France
French Polynesia[3]
Gabon
Gambia
Georgia
Germany
Ghana
Gibraltar
Greece
Grenada
Guatemala
Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
Guyana
Haiti- Honduras
Hong Kong
Hungary
Iceland
India[257]
Indonesia
Iraq[257]
Israel[257]
Ivory Coast
Jamaica
Jordan
Kazakhstan[258]
Kenya
Kiribati[256]
Kosovo
Kuwait[257]
Kyrgyzstan[257]
Laos
Latvia
Lebanon
Liberia
Libya
Liechtenstein
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Macau
Macedonia
Madagascar
Marshall Islands[257]
Malawi
Malaysia
Maldives
Mali
Malta
Mauritania
Mauritius
Micronesia[257]
Moldova
Mongolia[257]
Montenegro
Morocco
Mozambique
Myanmar
Namibia
Nauru
Nepal
Netherlands
New Caledonia
New Zealand
Niger
Nigeria[259]
Niue
Norway
Oman
Pakistan
Panama
Papua New Guinea[260]
Paraguay
Peru
Philippines
Poland
Portugal
Qatar
Republic of the Congo
Romania
Russia
Rwanda
Saint Kitts and Nevis
Saint Lucia[261]
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines[261]
Samoa[256]
Sao Tome and Principe
Saudi Arabia[257]
Senegal
Serbia
Seychelles
Sierra Leone
Singapore
Sint Maarten[261]
Slovakia
Slovenia
Somalia
Solomon Islands[256]
South Africa
South Korea
South Sudan
Spain
Sri Lanka
Sudan
Suriname
Sweden
Switzerland
Syria
Taiwan
Tajikistan[262]
Thailand
Togo
Tonga
Trinidad and Tobago[257]
Tunisia
Turkmenistan
Tuvalu[256]
Uganda
Ukraine
United Arab Emirates
Uruguay
Uzbekistan
Vanuatu[257]
Venezuela
Vietnam
Yemen
Zimbabwe
Notes
See also
- COVID-19 pandemic in Asia
- COVID-19 pandemic by country
- Deployment of COVID-19 vaccines
- COVID-19 pandemic death rates by country
- 2020 in Japan
- 2021 in Japan
- National responses to the COVID-19 pandemic
- Healthcare in Japan
- Nursing in Japan
- Aging of Japan
- COVID-19 outbreak at the 2020 Summer Olympics
References
- 1 2 3 4 5 Ritchie, Hannah; Mathieu, Edouard; Rodés-Guirao, Lucas; Appel, Cameron; Giattino, Charlie; Ortiz-Ospina, Esteban; Hasell, Joe; Macdonald, Bobbie; Beltekian, Diana; Dattani, Saloni; Roser, Max (2020–2021). "Coronavirus Pandemic (COVID-19)". Our World in Data. Retrieved 19 February 2022.
- ↑ "Coronavirus updates". NHK. Retrieved 3 January 2022.
- 1 2 3 4 5 "新型コロナウイルスに関連した肺炎の患者の発生について（1例目）" (in Japanese).
- 1 2 3 4 5 "Expert Meeting on Control of the Novel Coronavirus Disease Control" (PDF). mhlw.go.jp. Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare. 1 April 2020. Retrieved 17 April 2020.
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- ↑ Saitō, Katsuhisa (19 February 2020) "Early Stage of a Japan Outbreak: The Policies Needed to Support Coronavirus Patients". Nippon.com.
- ↑ "First Novel Coronavirus Expert Meeting". Prime Minister of Japan and His Cabinet, 19 February 2020.
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- ↑ Joshua Hunt. "Japan Is Racing to Test Favipiravir, a Drug to Treat Covid-19". WIRED. Retrieved 8 April 2020.
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- ↑ 新型コロナウイルス感染症対策専門家会議 (Novel Coronavirus Expert Meeting) (24 February 2020). "新型コロナウイルス感染症対策の基本方針の具体化に向けた見解 (Opinion on the Realization of Basic Policies for Novel Coronavirus Disease Control)". Ministry of Health, Labour, and Welfare.
- 1 2 3 4 "Coronavirus Basic Policy Impacts Japan’s Health, Education Systems". Nippon.com, 2 March 2020
- ↑ "新型コロナウイルス感染症対策の基本方針 (Basic Policies for Novel Coronavirus Disease Control)" (PDF). Prime Minister of Japan and His Cabinet. 25 February 2020. Retrieved 6 March 2020.
- ↑ "Basic Policies for Novel Coronavirus Disease Control". Prime Minister of Japan and His Cabinet, 25 February 2020.
- ↑ "Japan to create a fund to subsidize parents during school closure-Nikkei". Financial Post, 28 February 2020.
- ↑ Coronavirus: National Health Insurance to Cover Virus Test. Nippon.com, 27 February 2020
- ↑ The Government of Japan, Expert Meeting on the Novel Coronavirus Disease Control (9 March 2020). "Views on the Novel Coronavirus Disease Control (Summary Version)" (PDF). Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare (in English). Retrieved 15 March 2020.
- ↑ 新型コロナウイルス感染症対策専門家会議 (9 March 2020). "新型コロナウイルス感染症対策の見解" (PDF) (in Japanese). Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare. Retrieved 15 March 2020.
- ↑ NEWS, KYODO. "Japan local gov'ts urged to prepare for peak of coronavirus infections". Kyodo News+. Retrieved 12 March 2020.
- ↑ "Lawmakers slammed for using coronavirus to justify emergency clause for Japan's Constitution, curbing rights". The Japan Times, 5 February 2020.
- ↑ NEWS, KYODO. "Japan's Diet gives Abe power to declare emergency amid viral fears". Kyodo News+. Kyodo News. Retrieved 6 April 2020.
- ↑ Revised influenza law to allow Japan PM to declare state of emergency over coronavirus. The Mainichi, 5 March 2020
- ↑ NEWS, KYODO. "Japan PM Abe to declare state of emergency amid surge in virus infections". Kyodo News+. Kyodo News. Retrieved 6 April 2020.
- ↑ Tomohiro Osaki "How far can Japan go to curb the coronavirus outbreak? Not as far as you may think. The Japan Times, 1 March 2020.
- ↑ "Tokyo governor urges people to stay indoors over the weekend as virus cases spike". Japan Times. Kyodo News, Reuters. 25 March 2020. Retrieved 26 March 2020.
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- ↑ Sugiyama, Satoshi (26 March 2020). "Japan coronavirus task force may set stage for state of emergency". The Japan Times Online. ISSN 0447-5763. Retrieved 17 April 2020.
- ↑ "Koike calls for fewer outings; says state of emergency up to PM". Japan Today. Retrieved 17 April 2020.
- ↑ NEWS, KYODO. "Calls grow for Japan PM to declare state of emergency over virus". Kyodo News+. Kyodo News. Retrieved 17 April 2020.
- ↑ "Japan's cities scramble to move mild coronavirus patients to hotels". Nikkei Asian Review. Nihon Keizai Shimbun. Retrieved 17 April 2020.
- ↑ "Tokyo reports 83 new coronavirus infections". Kyodo News+. Retrieved 4 July 2020.
- ↑ "Tokyo to ask shopping malls, leisure facilities, pubs to close". The Asahu Shimbum. Retrieved 4 July 2020.
- ↑ "How to reduce physical contact with others by 80%: Japan medical experts". Mainichi Daily News. 毎日新聞. 10 April 2020. Retrieved 4 July 2020.
- ↑ "일본 코로나 감염 300여명 새로 확인…하루 최대폭 증가(종합)". mk.co.kr (in Korean). 연합뉴스. 매일경제. 3 April 2020. Retrieved 4 July 2020.
- ↑ "Abe declares state of emergency for 7 prefectures". NHK. 7 April 2020. Retrieved 7 April 2020.
- ↑ Nakagawa Saori (8 April 2020). "Abe: Crisis will peak in two weeks if human contact is reduced". nhk.or.jp/nhkworld/en/news. NHK World-Japan. 日本放送協会. Retrieved 27 June 2020.
- ↑ "Tokyo issues closure requests for 6 categories | NHK WORLD-JAPAN News". NHK WORLD. NHK. Retrieved 17 April 2020.
- ↑ "「接触7割減」では収束まで長期化 北大教授が警鐘" ["Prolonged convergence in "70% reduction in contact" will be alarmed by Professor Hokkaido University"] (in Japanese). Nihon Keizai Shimbun. 11 April 2020. Retrieved 17 April 2020.
- ↑ "新型コロナ感染拡大、接触６割減でも感染者数減らず" [The number of infected people does not decrease even if the new corona infection spreads and the contact 60% decrease]. TBS NEWS (in Japanese). Tokyo Broadcasting System. Retrieved 17 April 2020.
- ↑ "Japan's Prime Minister Expected to Extend COVID-19 State of Emergency". Voice of America. 4 May 2020. Retrieved 4 May 2020.
- ↑ "Japan to lift coronavirus emergency outside Tokyo, Osaka regions". Kyodo news. Retrieved 14 May 2020.
- ↑ "緊急事態宣言、大阪、兵庫、京都を解除 首都圏と北海道、２５日にも" [Emergency Declaration, Osaka, Hyogo Canceled; Tokyo Metropolitan area and Hokkaido, remains until 25th]. Jiji Press Agency (in Japanese). 21 May 2020. Retrieved 21 May 2020.
- ↑ "首都圏、25日にも判断 緊急事態宣言、関西3府県解除" [Tokyo metropolitan area, also determined on the 25th: Emergency situation declared, Kansai 3 prefectures lifted]. Nihon Keizai Shimbun (in Japanese). 21 May 2020. Retrieved 21 May 2020.
- ↑ "新型コロナウイルス感染症対策専門家会議の開催について" (PDF). 首相官邸 (Prime Minister's Office of Japan) (in Japanese). 15 April 2020. Retrieved 30 May 2020.
- ↑ Eighth Meeting of the Novel Coronavirus Response Headquarters. Prime Minister of Japan and His Cabinet, 12 February 2020.
- ↑ "COVID-19: Brief overview of Risk Governance Approach from Japan (Part 3)" (PDF). NIDM. 6 April 2020. Retrieved 27 June 2020.
- ↑ "Abe seeks opposition help for emergency virus bill as cases top 1,000". Kyodo News+. KYODO NEWS. 5 March 2020. Retrieved 27 June 2020.
- ↑ "3つの"密"を避けて外出を…新型コロナで厚労省が新たな注意喚起を公表". FNNプライムオンライン (in Japanese). Retrieved 18 April 2020.
- ↑ 首相官邸(災害・危機管理情報) (17 March 2020). "【注意喚起】#新型コロナウイルス に関するお知らせ". Twitter @kantei_saigai (in Japanese). Retrieved 18 April 2020.
- ↑ "「3つの密」、誕生の背景とは？ – 押谷・東北大教授（厚労省クラスター対策班）｜医療維新 – m3.comの医療コラム". www.m3.com (in Japanese). Retrieved 15 May 2020.
- ↑ "Avoid the "Three Cs"!" (PDF). Japanese Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare. Retrieved 30 September 2020.
- ↑ @WHO (16 July 2020). "Avoid the 3 Cs. There are certain places where #COVID19 spreads more easily: (1) Crowded places (2) Close-contact settings (3) Confined and enclosed spaces" (Tweet). Retrieved 30 September 2020 – via Twitter.
- ↑ "People with Fever for 4 Days Asked to Seek Advice on Coronavirus". Jiji Press. 17 February 2020. Retrieved 28 March 2020.
- ↑ "Japan PM Abe urges people with cold-like symptoms to avoid work, school". Kyodo News. 18 February 2020. Retrieved 28 March 2020.
- 1 2 Dooley B, Rich M, Inoue M (29 February 2020). "In Graying Japan, Many Are Vulnerable but Few Are Being Tested". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 29 February 2020.
- ↑ "Japan's Virus Success Has Puzzled the World. Is Its Luck Running Out?". MSN. 26 March 2020. Retrieved 29 March 2020.
- ↑ "新型肺炎174人の集団感染「クルーズ船3700人隔離は正しかったのか」医師の見解は？" [Outbreak of 174 new cases of pneumonia "Is the isolation of 3700 cruise ships correct?" What is the doctor's view?]. 文春オンライン (in Japanese). 13 February 2020. Retrieved 8 June 2020.
- ↑ 関西テレビ放送, KTV. 「検査できない」一般の医療機関も困惑 新型コロナウイルス. ktv.jp (in Japanese).
- ↑ "Archived copy" 病院4回...でも検査できず 新型肺炎 不安の声. FNN.jp (in Japanese). Archived from the original on 27 February 2020. Retrieved 27 February 2020.
{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) - ↑ "Archived copy" 「発熱 続いてるのに・・・」"検査難民"の不安. TBS NEWS (in Japanese). Archived from the original on 27 February 2020. Retrieved 27 February 2020.
{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) - ↑ "Archived copy" 新型ウイルス「検査受けられず」の声相次ぐ いま現場では. NHK (in Japanese). Archived from the original on 27 February 2020. Retrieved 27 February 2020.
{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) - ↑ "ウイルス検査できない 病院悲鳴" ウイルス検査できない 病院悲鳴. TBS NEWS (in Japanese). Archived from the original on 24 February 2020. Retrieved 27 February 2020.
- ↑ 医療機関たらい回しも 疑い受診、断られ―「検査基準あいまい」・新型肺炎：時事ドットコム. 時事通信 (in Japanese).
- ↑ "Archived copy" 暮らしを守れ 新型コロナ 受けたくてもなぜ "検査難民". FNN.jp (in Japanese). Archived from the original on 27 February 2020. Retrieved 27 February 2020.
{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) - ↑ "Archived copy" ウイルス検査依頼も拒否される事例 日本医師会が調査へ. NHK (in Japanese). Archived from the original on 2 March 2020. Retrieved 27 February 2020.
{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) - ↑ 厚労省、ＰＣＲ検査の不適切事例把握へ. TBS NEWS (in Japanese). Retrieved 27 February 2020.
- ↑ "Japan's Abe Seeks to Defuse Virus Criticism With Cash, Testing". Bloomberg.com. Bloomberg L.P. 29 February 2020. Retrieved 29 February 2020.
- ↑ "新型コロナ「五輪延期後に検査急増」は本当か 「感染隠蔽」説を検証すると…". Mainichi Shimbun (in Japanese). 28 March 2020. Retrieved 8 June 2020.
- ↑ "「五輪延期決定で検査を抑制する必要がなくなった」は誤り。検査人数が変動した事実はなし". BuzzFeed News (in Japanese). 31 March 2020. Retrieved 8 June 2020.
- ↑ "As coronavirus infections mount, Japan at last expands testing". Japan Today.
- ↑ "20代の感染者は日本の69人に対して韓国は2301人! PCR検査数の差か？". Yahoo!ニュース (in Japanese). 19 March 2020. Retrieved 8 June 2020.
- ↑ "感染者もPCR検査も韓国は日本の17倍!韓国の感染者急増はPCR検査数の差?". Yahoo!ニュース (in Japanese). 5 March 2020. Retrieved 8 June 2020.
- ↑ "日本のPCR検査は十分か?の疑問を徹底解説。新型コロナウイルス診断現場の実情". Business Insider (in Japanese). 18 March 2020. Retrieved 8 June 2020.
- ↑ "データでみる世界各国の新型コロナウイルスの検査状況!". データのじかん (in Japanese). 18 March 2020. Retrieved 8 June 2020.
- ↑ "新型コロナウイルスの検査 世界の検査数は？ 日本の現状は？". NHK (in Japanese). 18 March 2020. Retrieved 8 June 2020.
- ↑ "Coronavirus quarantine plans ignite row between South Korea and Japan". The Guardian. 6 March 2020. Retrieved 18 March 2020.
- ↑ "Japan and Korea Won't Let A Pandemic Stop Them Fighting". Foreign Policy. 12 March 2020. Retrieved 18 March 2020.
- ↑ "事実上、中国人と韓国人の入国を制限 イランも新たに対象". SankeiBiz (in Japanese). 5 March 2020. Retrieved 8 June 2020.
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- ↑ "10万円給付とマイナンバー". Japan In-depth (in Japanese). dmenuニュース. 1 May 2020. Archived from the original on 7 June 2020. Retrieved 8 June 2020.
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- ↑ "現金10万円給付 マイナンバーは余計だ". Tokyo Shimbun (in Japanese). 13 May 2020. Retrieved 8 June 2020.
- ↑ "コロナに乗じて国民をコントロールする気か?政府「マイナンバー普及」発言にネット拒否反応". MONEY VOICE (in Japanese). MAG2NEWS. 6 March 2020. Retrieved 8 June 2020.
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- 1 2 "【アベノマスク】届いてない妊婦用布マスクの『検品』に8億円。不良品発覚で厚労省明かす。「また税金使うの？」と疑問の声" [[Abeno Mask] 800 million yen for the "inspection" of pregnant women's cloth masks that have not arrived. The Ministry of Health, Labor, and Welfare reveals defective products. "Do you use tax again?"]. HuffPost Japan (in Japanese). 14 May 2020. Retrieved 23 May 2020.
- ↑ "アベノマスク「第4の受注業者」にユースビオが入った本当の理由". AERA (in Japanese). M&A Online. 29 April 2020. Retrieved 8 June 2020.
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- ↑ "7都府県で4月の「超過死亡」激増 東京1056人"隠れコロナ死"の可能性【＃コロナとどう暮らす】" [“Excess mortality” dramatically increased in April in 7 prefectures. The possibility of “hidden corona death” in 1056 people in Tokyo [# How to live with corona]] (in Japanese). Nikkan Gendai. Retrieved 17 June 2020.
- ↑ "「統計上はコロナではないが…」東京の4月死亡者数は例年より1000人以上多い" ["Statistically it's not corona..." Tokyo has more than 1,000 deaths in April] (in Japanese). President Online. Archived from the original on 17 June 2020. Retrieved 17 June 2020.
- ↑ "都内死者 ３、４月過去最多 「超過死亡」コロナ公表人数の１２倍 医療逼迫影響か" [Deaths in Tokyo: record high in March and April: 12 times the number of “excess death” coronas announced] (in Japanese). Sankei Shimbun. Archived from the original on 18 June 2020. Retrieved 17 June 2020.
- ↑ "大相撲・勝武士を数えず…コロナ死亡者「20代ゼロ」の"誤報"を続ける厚労省の言い分" [Counting sumo wrestlers and Katsutake samurai... The Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare continues to give "misinformation" of corona death "20s zero"] (in Japanese). Nikkan Gendai. Archived from the original on 17 June 2020. Retrieved 17 June 2020.
- ↑ "【独自】「ステージ４」減って１１道府県…病床使用率で新方式、実際に入院中の人だけで計上 : 社会 : ニュース : 読売新聞オンライン". www.yomiuri.co.jp. Retrieved 8 June 2021.
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{{cite web}}:|first=has generic name (help) - ↑ Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare (19 March 2020). "Expert Meeting on the Novel Coronavirus Disease Control Analysis of the Response to the Novel Coronavirus (COVID-19) and Recommendations (Excerpt)" (PDF).
- ↑ Iwanaga, Naoko. "「今はまだ諦める時期じゃない」「一斉休校は議論していない」 新型コロナ専門家会議の委員が協力を呼びかけること". BuzzFeed. Retrieved 12 May 2020.
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- ↑ Omura, T (2020). "Geriatric practice during and after the COVID ‐19 pandemic". Geriatrics & Gerontology International. 20 (7): 735–737. doi:10.1111/ggi.13958. PMC 7280712. PMID 32428997.
- ↑ Kanishka Singh (18 April 2021). "UPDATE 1-Japanese PM, Pfizer CEO discuss delivery of additional vaccine doses in 2021 to Japan". Retrieved 25 May 2021.
- ↑ "Japan's slow vaccination process as Tokyo 2020 looms". CNN. 26 April 2021. Retrieved 25 May 2021.
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- ↑ "Over 60% in Japan fully vaccinated against COVID-19". The Japan Times. 5 October 2021. Retrieved 30 December 2021.
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- ↑ "新型肺炎 道民が初感染 ５０代男性、容体は重篤" [New-type pneumonia first infections in residents, male in his fifties falls severely ill]. Tomakomai Minpō (in Japanese). 15 February 2020. Retrieved 25 March 2020.
- ↑ "新たなステージへ(コロナ)" [A new stage of coronavirus]. Hokkaido Government (in Japanese). Retrieved 25 March 2020.
- ↑ "Information on the Coronavirus (COVID-19) – Iwate Prefecture". 岩手県 Iwate Prefecture (in Japanese). Retrieved 14 July 2020.
- ↑ "青森県内新たに12人感染／新型コロナ" [12 new infections in Aomori Prefecture/COVID-19]. The Tō-Ō Nippō Press (in Japanese). 3 April 2020. Retrieved 4 April 2021.
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- ↑ "県内で新たに１３人の新型コロナ感染確認、累計３０１人に" [13 COVID-19 infections confirmed in the prefecture, totaling 301]. Akita Sakigake Shimpō (in Japanese). 3 April 2020. Retrieved 4 April 2021.
- ↑ "新型コロナ 宮城で１３６人感染 ８人から変異株（３日）" [COVID-19 infected 136 people in Miyagi, mutant strain reported in 8 people (3 days)]. Kahoku Shimpō (in Japanese). 3 April 2020. Retrieved 4 April 2021.
- ↑ "山形県 新型コロナ感染者 累計１０００人超える" [Yamagata Prefecture COVID-19 Infected Persons Over 1000 Cumulative]. Yahoo! Japan#Yahoo! Japan News (in Japanese). 3 April 2020. Retrieved 4 April 2021.
- ↑ "福島県 新型コロナ 28人感染確認 県内計2583人" [Fukushima Prefecture COVID-19 28 news infections in people confirmed, total infections 2583 people in the prefecture] (in Japanese). NHK. 3 April 2020. Retrieved 4 April 2021.
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- 1 2 "「クラスター 名古屋市中心に２つ発生」愛知県知事". NHK (in Japanese). 5 March 2020. Retrieved 1 April 2020.
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- ↑ "Kyoto hotels hit by 90% slump in foreign stays as pandemic takes toll". Kyodo News+. KYODO NEWS. Retrieved 14 July 2020.
- ↑ Uchida kanji, Kuroishi Noriyuki (24 May 2020). "新型コロナ、北九州市で新たに3人 福岡市では再陽性1人" [New Corona: 3 new in Kitakyushu City, 1 re-positive in Fukuoka City]. www.nishinippon.co.jp/item (in Japanese). 西日本新問社. 西日本新問. Retrieved 28 June 2020.
- 1 2 Kōno Daisuke, Toyofuku Sachiko (2 July 2020). "鹿児島市で9人感染、クラスターか 福岡では4人確認 新型コロナ" [9 people infected in Kagoshima city, cluster … 4 people confirmed in Fukuoka]. www.nishinippon.co.jp/item (in Japanese). 西日本新問社. 西日本新問. Retrieved 2 July 2020.
- 1 2 Nippon.com
- ↑ "Japan reports 20th case of coronavirus as Abe vows new steps to combat outbreak". Japan Times. 1 February 2020. ISSN 0447-5763. Archived from the original on 1 February 2020. Retrieved 1 February 2020.
- ↑ "South Korea says Chinese tour guide arriving from Japan found to be infected with coronavirus". Japan Times. 1 February 2020. ISSN 0447-5763. Archived from the original on 1 February 2020. Retrieved 1 February 2020.
- ↑ Pearl Bantillo (18 May 2020). "Japan economy falls into recession; Q1 GDP contracts 3.4% year on year".
- ↑ Takahashi, Ryusei (31 January 2020). "Amid virus outbreak, Japan stores scramble to meet demand for face masks". Japan Times. ISSN 0447-5763. Archived from the original on 1 February 2020. Retrieved 1 February 2020.
- ↑ "Japan seeks to contain economic impact of virus, new measures come into effect". Reuters. 1 February 2020. Archived from the original on 1 February 2020. Retrieved 1 February 2020.
- ↑ Pfanner, Eric (30 January 2020). "Chinese tourists finding they are no longer welcome as fear over coronavirus takes hold". Japan Times. ISSN 0447-5763. Archived from the original on 31 January 2020. Retrieved 31 January 2020.
- ↑ Siripala, Thisanka (13 February 2020). "Will Japan's Economy Buckle Under the Coronavirus Outbreak?". thediplomat.com. Retrieved 14 February 2020.
- ↑ Nohara, Yoshiaki (31 January 2020). "Japan Considers Extra Spending Over Coronavirus's Impact on Tourism". MSN. Archived from the original on 31 January 2020.
- ↑ "Chinese coronavirus fear spreads over luxury, retail sectors". spglobal.com. Archived from the original on 1 February 2020. Retrieved 1 February 2020.
- ↑ "Nintendo blames coronavirus for delayed Switch shipments and apologizes". 6 February 2020.
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- ↑ "Japan to subsidize push for teleworking from rural areas". The Japan Times. 26 September 2020. Retrieved 23 April 2021.
- ↑ "IT導入補助金の申請・活用やテレワークの課題解決について解説、自席で受講できる「オンラインセミナー」を開催いたします" [We will hold an "online seminar" where you can take your own seats, explain how to apply for and utilize IT introduction subsidies and solve telework issues.] (in Japanese). PR Times. 16 April 2021. Retrieved 23 April 2021.
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- ↑ "Coronavirus Forces Bettors Online in Japan".
- ↑ "Reigning CL MVP Hayato Sakamoto one of two Giants players to test positive for COVID-19". The Japan Times. 3 June 2020. Retrieved 5 June 2020.
- ↑ "IOC, IPC, Tokyo 2020 Organising Committee and Tokyo Metropolitan Government Announce New Dates for the Olympic and Paralympic Games Tokyo 2020". olympic.org. 30 March 2020. Retrieved 30 March 2020.
- ↑ Pavitt, Michael (20 March 2020). "Rescheduled Tokyo 2020 Olympics to open on July 23 in 2021". insidethegames.biz. Retrieved 20 March 2020.
- ↑ "1st COVID-19 case confirmed at Tokyo Olympic Village".
- ↑ "Abe: Next 2 weeks 'crucial' in virus battle NHK WORLD-JAPAN News". NHK World Japan. 26 February 2020. Retrieved 16 March 2020.
- ↑ "Organizers asked for event cancellations for two weeks amid coronavirus spread". KYODO NEWS. 27 February 2020. Retrieved 5 April 2020.
- ↑ アニメイベント「AnimeJapan 2020」も中止 新型コロナウイルスの拡大で. IT Media (in Japanese). 27 February 2020. Retrieved 6 March 2020.
- ↑ "Tokyo Disneyland to stay closed through early April due to virus". Reuters. 11 March 2020. Retrieved 8 April 2020.
- ↑ Reidy, Gearoid (11 March 2020). "Tokyo Disneyland Extends Shutdown, May See Longest-Ever Closure". Bloomberg News. Retrieved 8 April 2020.
- 1 2 Davis, River (19 March 2020). "Coronavirus Puts Hopes Pinned to Tokyo Olympics Tourists in Jeopardy". Wall Street Journal. ISSN 0099-9660. Retrieved 8 April 2020.
- ↑ Bevil, Dewayne (20 March 2020). "Legoland Japan set to reopen Monday after three-week coronavirus closure". Orlando Sentinel. Retrieved 23 March 2020.
- ↑ Obe, Mitsuru; Okutsu, Akane (20 March 2020). "Japan quietly reopens as much of world locks down". Nikkei Asian Review. Retrieved 8 April 2020.
- ↑ "Tokyo Disneyland won't reopen before April 20, operator says". Japan Today. Archived from the original on 28 March 2020. Retrieved 8 April 2020.
- ↑ "Major theme parks in Japan extend closures". NHK World. 27 March 2020. Retrieved 8 April 2020.
- ↑ "Tokyo DisneySea Reopening date and park operations procedures". Tokyo Disneyland. Retrieved 1 July 2020.
- ↑ 東京MX、新型肺炎でアニメ「とある科学の超電磁砲T」放送延期 「制作上の都合がつかず」. IT Media (in Japanese). 17 February 2020. Retrieved 6 March 2020.
- ↑ TVアニメ『A3!』「SEASON SPRING & SUMMER」第4話以降の放送が延期に. Animate Times (in Japanese). Retrieved 6 March 2020.
- ↑ "「魔進戦隊キラメイジャー」主人公役の小宮璃央が新型コロナ感染" (in Japanese). Livedoor. 31 March 2020. Retrieved 31 March 2020.
- ↑ "ACTOR NEWSKiramaRed Actor Rio Komiya Tests Positive for COVID-19". Tokusatsu Network. 31 March 2020. Retrieved 31 March 2020.
- ↑ "東映東京撮影所は消毒作業 レッド役がコロナ陽性" (in Japanese). Nikkan Sports. 31 March 2020. Retrieved 31 March 2020.
- ↑ "Japan's Toei Closes Tokyo Studio After Coronavirus Infection". Variety. 31 March 2020. Retrieved 31 March 2020.
- ↑ Schilling, Mark (25 March 2020). "Japan's Ken Shimura Infected by Coronavirus, 'God of Cinema' Filming Halted". Variety. Retrieved 8 April 2020.
- ↑ "Japanese Comedian Ken Shimura Dies From Coronavirus at 70". The Hollywood Reporter. 29 March 2020. Retrieved 30 March 2020.
- ↑ "Japan comedian Ken Shimura dies after coronavirus infection". Nikkei Asian Review. 29 March 2020. Retrieved 30 March 2020.
- ↑ "Japanese comedian Ken Shimura dies from coronavirus". Reuters. 29 March 2020. Retrieved 30 March 2020.
- ↑ "日テレ、4月期ドラマ『ハケンの品格』『未満警察』の初回延期へ". Oricon news (in Japanese). Retrieved 8 May 2020.
- ↑ "「半沢直樹」「MIU404」「わたナギ」が放送延期、新型コロナ流行で撮影に遅れ". Natalie (in Japanese). Retrieved 8 May 2020.
- ↑ "石原さとみ、西野七瀬ら延期の『アンサング・シンデレラ』集合写真 「待ってます」の声". @nifty news (in Japanese). Retrieved 8 May 2020.
- ↑ "鈴木保奈美 「スーツ2」放送中断に「残念で悔しく悲しく…少し泣いた」それでも「負けませんよ」". Sponichi Annex (in Japanese). Retrieved 8 May 2020.
- ↑ "NHK、ドラマ3作放送延期発表". モデルプレス (in Japanese). 6 April 2020. Retrieved 8 May 2020.
- ↑ "ＮＨＫドラマ３本延期発表、新型コロナ拡大の影響で". Nikkan Sports (in Japanese). 5 April 2020. Retrieved 8 May 2020.
- ↑ Hodgkins, Crystalyn. "New Pokémon TV Anime Delays New Episodes Due to COVID-19". Anime News Network. Archived from the original on 21 April 2020. Retrieved 19 April 2020.
- 1 2 Pineda, Rafael Antonio (20 April 2020). "Digimon Adventure:, Healin' Good Precure Delay New Episodes Due to COVID-19". Anime News Network. Archived from the original on 20 April 2020. Retrieved 20 April 2020.
- ↑ "Chibi Maruko-chan Anime Delays New Episodes Due to COVID-19". Anime News Network. 26 April 2020. Retrieved 8 May 2020.
- ↑ Kaila Imada (6 April 2020). "100-year-old Hirosaki Cherry Blossom Festival in Aomori is cancelled this year". Time Out Tokyo. Retrieved 6 April 2020.
- ↑ "黒石ねぷた祭り中止決定 ６５年の歴史で初" [Kuroishi Neputa Matsuri cancelled for the first time in its 65-year-long history]. Mutsu Shimpō (in Japanese). 6 April 2020. Retrieved 6 April 2020.
- ↑ "青森ねぶた祭中止 正式決定 新型コロナウイルス" [Officials cancel Aomori Nebuta Festival due to coronavirus]. NHK (in Japanese). 8 April 2020. Archived from the original on 17 April 2020. Retrieved 8 April 2020.
- ↑ "令和2年（2020年）八王子まつりの中止について" [About cancellation of Hachioji Festival in the second year of Reiwa (2020)]. www.hachiojimatsuri.jp (in Japanese). 18 May 2020. Retrieved 12 July 2020.
- 1 2 3 "時代祭の行列を中止へ 京都三大祭り、すべてが規模縮小" [Jidai Festival Procession to Be Abandoned … Kyoto's three major festivals, all scale down]. www.asahi.com/articles (in Japanese). The Asahi Shimbun Company. 朝日新聞. 11 July 2020. Retrieved 12 July 2020.
- ↑ Saskia Gilmour (29 June 2020). "Kishiwada Danjiri Matsuri [Cancelled]". en.japantravel.com. Retrieved 12 July 2020.
- ↑ "博多山笠、来夏へ「延期」 博多松囃子も". Nishinippon Shimbun (in Japanese). 20 April 2020. Retrieved 10 May 2020.
- ↑ "博多山笠、開催見送り 戦後初めて". Nihon Keizai Shimbun (in Japanese). 20 April 2020. Retrieved 10 May 2020.
- ↑ "CORONA SUNSETS FESTIVAL 2020 の開催について | Corona SUNSETS FESTIVAL".
- ↑ 広島みなと花火、20年夏は開催中止 五輪で警備員不足 日本経済新聞 2019. 10. 31. Translation: Also "Miyajima underwater fireworks" to be held in Miyajima in late August every year (Hatsukaichi, Hiroshima Prefecture), has decided to hold discontinuation of 20 years for the same reason.
- ↑ Notice of postponement of Sansha Festival Asakusa Shrine 2020.04.01 Translation:This postponement will be applied to all annual festival events including Shinto ceremonies such as “Headquarters Mikoshi Town Tomi”. As for the method of travel, the highest priority is to ensure safety, and the decision will be made on August 31st.
- ↑ Chappell B (27 February 2020). "Coronavirus Updates: Italy Reports 650 Cases And 17 Deaths". NPR.org. Retrieved 15 March 2020.
- ↑ NEWS, KYODO. "Hokkaido eyes temporary shutdown of all schools to fight coronavirus". Kyodo News+. Retrieved 15 March 2020.
- ↑ "Almost 99% of Japan's public elementary schools shut as COVID-19 spreads". The Japan Times Online. 5 March 2020. ISSN 0447-5763. Retrieved 15 March 2020.
- ↑ "This is a good time to change Japan's academic year". The Japan Times. 9 April 2020. Retrieved 6 June 2020.
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- ↑ 龙玥. "日本民间捐100万口罩驰援武汉" [Japanese people donate 1 million masks to support Wuhan]. 观察者网 (in Chinese (China)). Shanghai. Retrieved 8 March 2020.
- ↑ "《武漢肺炎》中國自嗨？日媒：日本捐百萬口罩 事主出面打臉 – 國際 – 自由時報電子報". 自由電子報 (in Chinese (Taiwan)). 27 January 2020. Archived from the original on 28 January 2020. Retrieved 4 February 2020.
- ↑ "中国に100万枚以上のマスク寄付。日本企業や市、新型コロナウイルス感染拡大で" (in Japanese). Yahoo! Japan. 28 January 2020.
- ↑ Consulate General of Japan in Chongqing (28 January 2020). "日本水户市向重庆市捐赠50000份医用口罩" (in Chinese). Archived from the original on 30 January 2020. Retrieved 7 February 2020.
- ↑ ""山川異域，風月同天"：外交部感謝日本協助抗疫的暖心舉動" (in Chinese). 4 February 2020. Archived from the original on 5 February 2020. Retrieved 6 February 2020.
- ↑ "日本執政黨國會議員每人將向中國捐款5000日元" (in Chinese). The Nikkei. Archived from the original on 11 February 2020. Retrieved 14 February 2020.
- ↑ "COVID-19 reports sparking boorish behavior in communities | Asahi Shinbun |". Archived from the original on 2 May 2020. Retrieved 8 July 2020.
- 1 2 McCurry, Justin (13 November 2020). "Return of a ramen pioneer gives boost to Japan's Covid-hit restaurant sector". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 13 November 2020.
- ↑ Wang, S; Wright, R; Wakatsuki, Y (4 February 2020). "In Japan, more people died from suicide last month than from Covid in all of 2020. And women have been impacted most". CNN. Retrieved 29 November 2020.
- ↑ "Top Variants Over Time". Regeneron. Retrieved 13 July 2021.
- 1 2 "都道府県別の懸念される変異株の国内事例数(ゲノム解析)について". the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare. Retrieved 17 July 2021.
- 1 2 3 "Infectious Diseases Weekly Report". National Institute for Infectious Diseases. Retrieved 17 July 2021.
- ↑ "Coronavirus (COVID-19) advisory information | Travel Japan | JNTO". Japan National Tourism Organization (JNTO). Retrieved 1 May 2020.
- ↑ "新型コロナウイルス（日本からの渡航者・日本人に対する 各国・地域の入国制限措置及び入国・入域後の行動制限）". Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan. Archived from the original on 9 March 2020. Retrieved 12 March 2020.
- ↑ De 2020, 12 De Marzo. "El Gobierno suspendió por 30 días todos los vuelos internacionales provenientes de zonas afectadas por el coronavirus". Infobae (in European Spanish). Retrieved 13 March 2020.
- ↑ "Coronavirus: visas suspendidas transitoriamente a extranjeros". El Canciller (in Spanish). 12 March 2020. Retrieved 13 March 2020.
- 1 2 3 4 5 "More countries, regions restrict entry from Japan". NHK WORLD-Japan News. Retrieved 5 March 2020.
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 "18 countries, regions restricting entry from Japan over virus". Mainichi Daily News. 3 March 2020. Retrieved 15 March 2020.
- ↑ "Kazakhstan bars entry for nationals of China, Japan, Iran, Italy, South Korea". akipress.com. Retrieved 7 March 2020.
- ↑ Stephanie Busari; Bukola Adebayo. "Nigeria bans entry for travelers from 13 countries as it announces five new cases of coronavirus". CNN. Retrieved 18 March 2020.
- ↑ "Papua New Guinea bans travellers from all 'Asian ports'". news.yahoo.com. Retrieved 5 March 2020.
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External links
- "新型コロナウイルス感染症について" [About Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)] (in Japanese). Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare. Retrieved 11 March 2020. – includes situation reports of the outbreak in Japan.
- In English: "About Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)". Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare. Retrieved 11 March 2020.
- "新型コロナウイルス 特設サイト" (in Japanese). NHK. Retrieved 11 March 2020.
- In English: "NHK WORLD – JAPAN Coronavirus outbreak". NHK World-Japan. Retrieved 31 March 2020.
- "新型コロナウイルス 特設サイト" (in Japanese). TBS News.
- "新型コロナウイルス 特設サイト" (in Japanese). Toyo Keizai.
- "新型コロナウイルス ニュース Updates" (in Japanese). The Nikkei.
- "新型コロナウイルス 特設サイト" (in Japanese). Chunichi Shimbun.
- In English: "Coronavirus outbreak updates". Kyodo News.
- In English: "Latest COVID-19 news updates". The Japan Times. 18 March 2020.
- In English: "COVID-19 Update Article List". The Asahi Shimbun.
- In English: "Coronavirus (COVID-19) infections in Japan". Mainichi Shimbun.
- Coronavirus COVID-19 Global Cases and historical data by Johns Hopkins University
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