Comfort food

Chicken soup, a common classic comfort food that is found across various cultures

Comfort food is food that provides a nostalgic or sentimental value to someone,[1] and may be characterized by its high caloric nature, high carbohydrate level, or simple preparation.[2] The nostalgia may be specific to an individual, or it may apply to a specific culture.[3]

Definition and history

The term comfort food has been traced back at least to 1966, when the Palm Beach Post used it in a story: "Adults, when under severe emotional stress, turn to what could be called 'comfort food'—food associated with the security of childhood, like mother's poached egg or famous chicken soup."[4] According to a research by April White at JSTOR, it might have been Liza Minelli who used the term for the first time in its modern meaning in an interview, admitting to craving a hamburger.[5]

When the term first appeared, newspapers used it in quotation marks. In the 1970s, the most popular comfort food in the United States were various potato dishes and chicken soup, but even at the time, the definition varied from person to person. During the next decades, the nature of comfort food changed in the USA, shifting from savory dishes to sweet ones, while comfort food themed cookbooks started to spread and restaurants started to offer items labelled as such, when originally the term was used for food items consumed home alone. Worldwide diet trends, emerging in the 1990s, like the low fat or the low-carb diet were unable to end the cravings for comfort food. According to White, the COVID-19 pandemic that hit the world in 2020 further strengthened people's need for comfort food that evokes nostalgia and the feeling of belonging.[5]

Psychological studies

Consuming energy-dense, high calorie, high fat, salt or sugar foods, such as ice cream, chocolate or french fries, may trigger the reward system in the human brain, which gives a distinctive pleasure or temporary sense of emotional elevation and relaxation.[6][7] When psychological conditions are present, people often use comfort food to treat themselves. Those with negative emotions tend to eat unhealthy food in an effort to experience the instant gratification that comes with it, even if only short-lived.[8]

One study divided college-students' comfort-food identifications into four categories (nostalgic foods, indulgence foods, convenience foods, and physical comfort foods) with a special emphasis on the deliberate selection of particular foods to modify mood or effect, and indications that the medical-therapeutic use of particular foods may ultimately be a matter of mood-alteration.[9]

The identification of particular items as comfort food may be idiosyncratic, though patterns are detectable. In one study of American preferences, "males preferred warm, hearty, meal-related comfort foods (such as steak, casseroles, and soup) while females instead preferred comfort foods that were more snack related (such as chocolate and ice cream). In addition, younger people preferred more snack-related comfort foods compared to those over 55 years of age." The study also revealed strong connections between consumption of comfort foods and feelings of guilt.[10]

Comfort food consumption is seen as a response to emotional stress and, consequently, as a key contributor to the epidemic of obesity in the United States.[11] The provocation of specific hormonal responses leading selectively to increases in abdominal fat is seen as a form of self-medication.[12]

Further studies suggest that consumption of comfort food is triggered in men by positive emotions, and by negative ones in women.[13] The stress effect is particularly pronounced among college-aged women, with only 33% reporting healthy eating choices during times of emotional stress.[14] For women specifically, these psychological patterns may be maladaptive.[15]

A therapeutic use of these findings includes offering comfort foods or "happy hour" beverages to anorectic geriatric patients whose health and quality of life otherwise decreases with reduced oral intake.[16]

By region

A partial list by region of comfort foods around the world.

Afghanistan

Comfort foods in Afghanistan are:

  • Aushak – stuffed dumplings and sauce
  • Bolani – filled flatbread[17]
  • Borani Banjan or Borani-e-Banjan – baked eggplant with yogurt sauce
  • Borani Kadoo or Borani-e-Kado – sweet and savory braised pumpkin with yogurt sauce[18]
  • Chainaki –
  • Chalaw or Challow – steamed rice with spices
  • Kabuli palaw or Qabuli Pulao – steamed rice with raisins, carrots, and lamb[18]
  • Karahai – meat cooked in a traditional karahi pot
  • Kebab – grilled skewered meat[17]
  • Korma Gosht or Qorma-e-Gosht – braised meat[19]
  • Mantu – meat-stuffed dumpling[17][19]
  • Naan – flatbread[18]
  • Sabzi Palu – spinach (sabzi) with spices
  • Sher Berinj – rice pudding[20]

Australia, New Zealand and South Africa

A Pavlova garnished with fruit and cream

Comfort foods in Australia, New Zealand and South Africa may include:

Canada

A plate of classic poutine at a Montreal restaurant.

England

Bangers and mash is a British comfort food.[38]

English comfort foods include:

  • Bacon butty (bacon sandwich)[39][40][41]
  • Bangers and mash – sausages and mashed potatoes[38][40][41][42]
  • Cauliflower cheese[40][42][43][44]
  • Chicken Tikka Masala[42][43][44]
  • Cornish pasty[40][42]
  • Cottage pie (Shepherd's pie)[40][41][42][43]
  • Custard[43]
  • Curry – India-inspired stew over rice[41]
  • Egg and chips[41][45]
  • Egg and soldiers – toast sliced into approximately six to eight pieces lengthwise, to dip into soft-boiled egg yolk[41][46]
  • Fish and chips[40][41][47]
  • Fruit Crumble – stewed fruit with crumbly topping[25][40][42][43]
  • Full English breakfast[40][41]
  • Lancashire hotpot[43]
  • Pies
  • Potatoes
    • Jacket potato[41]
    • Mashed potatoes
  • Puddings
    • Bread and butter pudding[43]
    • Jam Roly-Poly – suet pudding rolled in a spiral with jam[49]
    • Rice pudding[42][43]
    • Spotted dick – steamed pudding with dried fruit[40]
    • Sticky toffee pudding[42]
    • Treacle pudding[40][43]
  • Roasted meat, such as roast beef[25][40][41][42] or chicken[40][42]
  • Scotch egg – hard-boiled egg baked in sausage[40][42]
  • Soups and stews
    • Beef stew with dumplings[41]
    • Cock-a-leekie soup[40]
    • Lobscouse or lobscows – meat stew[44]
    • Potato, leek, and Stilton soup
  • Stottie cake – heavy, round bread[50]
  • Toad in the hole – sausages baked in Yorkshire pudding[41][42][43]
  • Toast
    • Baked beans on toast[41]
    • Welsh Rarebit – hot cheese sauce on toast[42][43]
  • Toastie – grilled sandwich[43]
  • Yorkshire pudding[40][42][51]

Egypt

Plate of stewed beans
Ful medames served with hard-boiled eggs, a staple in Egypt.
  • Basbousa – sweet unleavened cake
  • Falafel – fried bean ball[52]
  • Fatteh – meat soup on cooked rice with crisp flatbread with garlic sauce[53]
  • Ful medames – bean stew[54][55]
  • Hawawshi – pita bread stuffed with flavored meat[56]
  • Kushari – casserole of rice, macaroni, and vegetables[57]
  • Macarona béchamel – baked pasta dish with ground meat and béchamel sauce[58]
  • Sahlab – winter beverage from Orchis flour[59]
  • Mulukhiyah – soup or stew made with jute mallow leaves[60][61]
  • Roz bil khalta - brown rice with nuts, raisins and meat bits.
  • Om Ali - Pastry mixed with milk, nuts and sometimes coconut flakes topped with cream or butter and baked[62]

France

A madeleine. A madeleine de Proust is a French expression specifically referring to Marcel Proust's description of comfort food in In Search of Lost Time.
  • Crème caramel – custard dessert[63]
  • French onion soup – onion soup with cheese and bread[63]
  • Gratin dauphinois – potato slices baked with cream[25]
  • Pâté – cold meat paste[63]
  • Pot-au-feu – beef stew[64]
  • Tomates Farcies – Tomatoes stuffed with ground meat

Germany

German comfort foods may include the following foods:

  • Rindsrouladen
  • Münchner Weißwürscht
  • Obazda
  • Auszogne
  • Schweinshaxn
  • Pichlstoana
  • Gaisburger Marsch
  • Sauerbraten
  • Currywurst
  • Saumagen
  • Regensburger
  • Frankfurter
  • Käsespätzle
  • Schwäbische Spätzle
  • Hamburger Labskaus
  • Hamburger Aalsuppe
  • Kohlrouladen
  • Franzbrötchen
  • Spanferkel
  • Arme Ritter
  • Bouletten, Frikadellen, Fleischpflanzerl etc.
  • Steckerlfisch
  • Schlachtplatte
  • Leberkäse
  • Mett
  • Nürnberger Lebkuchen
  • Maultaschen
  • Rote Grütze
  • Schweinsbraten
  • Kartoffelpuffer
  • Laugenbrezn, Laugengebäck
  • Fleischsalat
  • Nürnberger Rostbratwurst
  • Bratkartoffeln

Greece

  • Pastitsio
  • Moussakas
  • Gemista
  • Dolmadakia

Hong Kong

  • Baked Porkchop Rice - a type of Hong Kong-style western cuisine
  • Cart noodle - an à la carte noodle dish traditionally sold using carts
  • Cha Chaan Teng food - a Hong Kong Style-Cafe
  • Dim Sum - small bite-sized portions of food served in small steamer baskets during yum cha
  • Egg Tart
  • Hotpot
  • Macaroni in broth - a type of Hong Kong-style western cuisine
  • Pineapple Bun - a type of pastry that resembles a pineapple
  • Put chai ko - a palm-sized pudding cake snack
  • Siu Mei – meats roasted on spits over an open fire or in a large rotisserie oven

India

  • Biryani - Mutton, chicken, beef or lamb
  • Samosa
  • Cutlet
  • Radhaballavi - Deep-fried flatbread with a filling
  • Kochuri
  • Rolls
  • Momo
  • Fish fry
  • Sambar
  • Puri - Fried flatbread
  • Masala Dosa - rice crepes, with or without a filling of potatoes and onion
  • Khichri - Made with Rice and Legumes(Lentils,Mung bean etc)
  • Pav bhaji - Curry served with buttered buns.
  • Rasam and Curd rice - particularly in South India
  • Maachh-bhaat
  • Daal chawal - particularly in North India
  • Curd rice - Rice mixed with yogurt

Indonesia

Bubur ayam (chicken congee) is an Indonesian comfort food.

Some popular Indonesian foods are considered to be comfort food, usually served hot or warm, and either soupy or with a soft texture. Most of them are high in carbs or fat, such as congee, fried rice, and noodles which are high in carbs; while meatballs and grilled skewered meats contain fair amounts of fat and salt. Comfort foods often are the kind of food that provides nostalgic sentiments, as they often called masakan rumahan (home cooking) or masakan ibu (mother's dishes). In Indonesia, the warm and soft texture of bubur ayam is believed to help people to recover during convalescence.[65] Sayur sop or sup ayam is Indonesian chicken soup that often sought during flu. The warm soup contains chunk of chicken, bits of potato, carrot, and common green bean served in chicken stock.[66]

Some Indonesian comfort foods are traditional Indonesian food and some are derived from Chinese influences. For some Indonesians, especially those who are abroad, comfort food might also be a certain brand or type of Indonesian instant noodle, such as Indomie Mi goreng.[67] Indonesian comfort foods include:

  • Bakmi or mie ayam – noodles (mi) with pork (bak) or chicken (ayam)[68]
  • Bakso – meatball soup[65][69][70]
  • Bubur ayam – chicken congee[65]
  • Gado-gado – salad containing vegetables, tempeh and egg in peanut sauce[71]
  • Indomie Mi goreng – fried noodle[65][67]
  • Nasi goreng – fried rice[70]
  • Nasi tim – steamed chicken rice[72][73]
  • Sayur sop or sup ayam – Indonesian chicken and vegetables soup[66]
  • Sate – skewered barbecue with peanut sauce[70]
  • Soto ayam – spicy chicken soup[65][74]

Italy

  • Gnocchi – small soft dough dumplings[75]
  • Lasagne – flat noodles (pasta) layered with meat, cheese and tomato sauce[76][77]
  • Pasta all'amatriciana – pasta with guanciale, tomato sauce and pecorino cheese
  • Pasta alla carbonara – pasta with egg guanciale, and pecorino cheese
  • Nutella – sweet spread of cocoa and hazelnuts[78]
  • Pizza – baked flatbread with toppings

Japan

  • Curry Rice/Kare Raisu – Stewed vegetables - most commonly potato, onion, and carrot - in a mild curry sauce, sometimes with meat[79]
  • Chazuke/ochazuke – rice with green tea[80][81][82]
  • Miso soup – soybean-flavored clear soup[80]
  • Mochi – rice cake[82]
  • Onigiri – rice ball[80][82]
  • Ramen – soup with thin noodles[82][83]
  • Takoyaki – octopus balls[82]
  • Tempura – battered, deep-fried pieces of meat or vegetables[80][82]
  • Udon – soup with thick noodles[80][82]

Philippines

Pork adobo
  • Adobo – A salt and vinegar marinated meat stew, with a large amount of local and regional variations.[84][85]
  • Arroz Caldo / Lugaw – A thick, savory rice porridge, often served as breakfast, on rainy days, or when sick.[86][87]
  • Batchoy – A noodle soup with a variety of meats.[88]
  • Filipino spaghetti - Sweet and savory spaghetti
  • Ginataan – A coconut cream-based dessert soup with candied banana, sticky rice balls, sagó (tapioca balls), taro, and langkâ (jackfruit).
  • Bulalo – A beef bone marrow soup.[87]
  • Champorado – Chocolate rice porridge, sometimes served savory (as with tuyô)[25][89][87]
  • Dinuguan - A pork blood and offal stew.[89]
  • Halo-halo – A cold, crushed ice dessert dish of mixed sweets in fruits, with milk and topped with ice cream and leche flan.[84][88]
  • Kare-kare – A stew of ox tripe and oxtail in a peanut sauce. It is regarded as a local variant of Indian curry.[85]
  • Lumpia – Fried or fresh spring rolls with vegetable or meat filling.[85]
  • Lomi – A hot noodle soup with distinctly thick egg noodles.[87]
  • Pancit – A class of noodles, almost always fried or stir-fried, and often served during birthday celebrations.[85][90]
  • Puto – Steamed rice cakes[89]
  • Sinampalukan - Sour, tamarind-based chicken soup[91][92]
  • Sinigang – A classification of sour soups with different configurations of meats, vegetables, and souring agents.[84][87][88]
  • Sopas - A creamy soup (usually made with chicken) with elbow macaroni.[87][93][94]
  • Suman – Another type of glutinous rice cake[88]
  • Tsokolate – Hot chocolate drink made with cacao, served with or without milk.[87]

Poland

Steamed pierogi, with fried onions on top

Some Polish comfort food include:

  • Soups and stews
    • Bigos – hunters stew
    • Barszcz z uszkami – clear beetroot soup with forest mushrooms dumplings
    • Gulasz – goulash / meat and vegetable stew
    • Kapuśniak – sauerkraut soup
    • Rosół – chicken soup with fine noodles
    • Zupa grzybowa – wild mushroom soup
    • Zupa ogórkowa – sour cucumber soup
    • Zupa pomidorowa – clear tomato soup with rice or noodles
    • Zupa szczawiowa – sorrel soup served with boiled egg
    • Żurek – sour rye soup
  • Budyń waniliowy z malinami – vanilla pudding with raspberries
  • Kotlet schabowy – pork schnitzel
  • Golonka – pickled ham hock
  • Jagody ze śmietaną – blueberries with cream
  • Kopytka – small potato dumpling
  • Łazanki – large flat noodles with fried sauerkraut
  • Makaron ze śmietaną i truskawkami – pasta with cream and strawberries
  • Mielone z ziemniakami i mizerią – pork burgers with mashed potatoes and cucumber salad
  • Naleśniki z twarogiem – pancakes with milk curd
  • Pierogi – filled dumplings[25][95][96][97]
  • Placki ziemniaczane – potato pancakes
  • Sernik – baked cheesecake
  • Śledź w oleju – pickled herring
  • Zapiekanka – toasted open-face sandwich

Puerto Rico

Arroz con pollo: chicken with rice

Some Puerto Rican comfort foods include:

  • Arroz con gandules – rice with pigeon peas[98][99]
  • Arroz con pollo – rice with chicken[98]
  • Bistec encebollado – steak and onions[100]
  • Carne Guisada – stewed beef[99]
  • Carne mechada – Puerto Rican style meatloaf
  • Churrasco – grilled flank or skirt steak[100]
  • Cuchifritos and Fritanga – assortments of fried appetizers (alcapurrias, bacalaitos, pastelitos/pastelillos, piononos, sorrullos/sorullitos)[100][98][99]
  • Habichuelas guisadas con calabaza – beans stewed with pumpkin[100]
  • Lechón asado – roast pork[100]
  • Mixta – white rice, stewed beans with pumpkin and stewed meat with potatoes and carrots
  • Mofongo and trifongo – fried mashed green plantains[100][101]
  • Mofongo relleno de mariscos, carne o pollo – Fried mashed green plantains stuffed with seafood, meat or chicken[98]
  • Pasteles – Puerto Rican tamales[99]
  • Pastelón de plátano maduro – ripe banana casserole with ground beef and cheddar cheese[99]
  • Pinchos – Puerto Rican skewers[101]
  • Tostones – fried plantain slices[100][101]

Russia

Solyanka

Russian comfort foods may include:

  • Bliny – pancakes
  • Dressed herring – layered herring salad
  • Golubtsy – cabbage rolls[25]
  • Kasha – porridge
  • Kotlety – meatballs
  • Kholodets – savory gelatin
  • Kvass – fermented drink made with bread
  • Napoleon – layered pastry
  • Okroshka – cold vegetable soup
  • Olivier salad – vegetable salad
  • Ponchiki – yeast-raised pastry bun
  • Pelmeni – meat-filled dumpling
  • Pirozhki – buns with various fillings
  • Rassolnik – pickled soup
  • Shashlik – skewered and grilled cubes of meat
  • Shchi – cabbage soup
  • Solyanka – spicy and sour soup
  • Syrniki – fried quark
  • Ukha – clear, fish-based soup
  • Vareniki – filled dumplings (pierogi)

Spain

Chocolate con churros
  • Castañas asadas – roasted chestnuts
  • Chocolate con churros – hot chocolate drink with fried dough
  • Cordero asado – grilled lamb
  • Fried seafood, such as boquerones fritos (fried anchovies) and calamares fritos (fried squid)
  • Gazpacho – cold vegetable soup
  • Jamón serrano – Serrano ham
  • Paella – rice with saffron, cooked in a shallow pan[102]
  • Sausage, such as chorizo, morcilla, and salchichón
  • Sobaos pasiegos – sweet bread
  • Stew, such as cocido madrileño (Madrid stew)[103]
  • Tarta de Santiago – almond cake or tart[102]
  • Torreznos – bacon
  • Tortilla española or tortilla de patata – potato-onion omelet[102][104]

Taiwan

Dan zai noodles
  • Beef noodle soup[105]
  • Dan zai noodles – noodles and prawn with broth[106]
  • Minced pork rice[106]
  • Oyster omelette[107]
  • Red bean soup[108]
  • Small sausage in large sausage – grilled sausage in a rice casing[107]
  • Tangyuan – filled rice dumplings in sweet syrup[108]
  • salt and pepper chicken - fried chicken with salted pepper powder.

Turkey

Mantı, with yogurt and red pepper sauce

In Turkish, comfort food is closest in meaning to Turkish: Anne yemeği, "mother's dish", especially in terms of providing a nostalgic feeling, or Turkish: Ev yemeği, "home dish". Some Turkish comfort foods are:

  • Mantı – spicy meat dumpling[109][110][111]
  • Kuru fasulye – bean and tomato stew[25][112]
  • Pilav – rice dish[113]
  • Mercimek Çorbası – a soup based on lentils
  • Börek – baked filled pastries, a wide variety of regional variations of börek exists
  • Menemen - commonly eaten for breakfast
  • Yaprak Sarma - stuffed grape leaves[114]
  • Gözleme - a stuffed flatbread , commonly stuffed with spinach,minced meat and potato mash[115]

Ukraine

Ukrainian comfort foods includes, but aren't limitied to:

  • Borscht — beetroots soup, also there are few variants:
    • Green borscht
    • White borscht
    • Cabbage borscht
  • Deruny — potato pancakes with sour cream
  • Holubtsi — small, medium or large rolls with prepared rice
    • Cabbage roll
    • Grape leaves roll
  • Kasha — kind of porridge
  • Kholodets —
  • Kolach — sweet, round shaped pastry
  • Mlynci — pancakes.
    • Nalysnyky — pancakes with fillings
  • Pampushky — small savory or sweet yeast-raised bun
  • Pyrizhky — backed or fried small donuts with different (mostly fruits or meat) fillings.
  • Syrnyky — fried quark pancakes, garnished with sour cream
  • Varennia — jam
  • Varenyky — Filled dumplings cooked at boiling water
  • Vinehret — Beans and potato salad colored with beetroots

United States

Macaroni and cheese is an American comfort food.[116]

American comfort foods may include the following foods:

See also

  • Diet food
  • Dish (food)
  • Emotional eating
  • Food group
  • Food presentation
  • Haute cuisine
  • List of foods
  • List of nutrition guides
  • Outline of food preparation
  • Portion size
  • Whole food

References

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  2. ↑ "Comfort food". WordNet 3.1. Retrieved 10 January 2016.
  3. ↑ Rufus, Anneli (23 June 2011). "How comfort foods work like Prozac". Gilt Taste. Archived from the original on 9 April 2015. Retrieved 8 April 2015.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) ()
  4. 1 2 Romm, Cari (3 April 2015). "Why Comfort Food Comforts". The Atlantic. Retrieved 21 July 2015.
  5. 1 2 "A Brief History of Comfort Food". JSTOR daily. Retrieved 14 February 2022.
  6. ↑ Heshmat, Shahram (28 September 2016). "5 Reasons Why We Crave Comfort Foods". Psychology Today. Retrieved 5 September 2018.
  7. ↑ Wansink, Brian; Sangerman, Cynthia (July 2000). "Engineering comfort foods". American Demographics: 66–7.
  8. ↑ "The Science behind Comfort Food - Desert Hope". Desert Hope. Retrieved 6 September 2018.
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  11. ↑ Dallman, Mary F.; Pecoraro, Norman; Akana, Susan F.; La Fleur, Susanne E.; Gomez, Francisca; Houshyar, Hani; Bell, M. E.; Bhatnagar, Seema; Laugero, Kevin D.; Manalo, Sotara (2003). "Chronic stress and obesity: A new view of 'comfort food'". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 100 (20): 11696–701. Bibcode:2003PNAS..10011696D. doi:10.1073/pnas.1934666100. JSTOR 3147854. PMC 208820. PMID 12975524.
  12. ↑ Dallman, Mary F.; Pecoraro, Norman C.; La Fleur, Susanne E. (2005). "Chronic stress and comfort foods: Self-medication and abdominal obesity". Brain, Behavior, and Immunity. 19 (4): 275–80. doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2004.11.004. PMID 15944067. S2CID 13915063.
  13. ↑ Dube, L; Lebel, J; Lu, J (2005). "Affect asymmetry and comfort food consumption". Physiology & Behavior. 86 (4): 559–67. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.424.1134. doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2005.08.023. PMID 16209880. S2CID 1345114.
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  16. ↑ Wood, Paulette; Vogen, Barbra D (1998). "Feeding the anorectic client: Comfort foods and happy hour". Geriatric Nursing. 19 (4): 192–4. doi:10.1016/S0197-4572(98)90153-7. PMID 9866509.
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  19. 1 2 Mishan, Ligaya (29 November 2018). "At Nansense, Afghan Comfort Comes From an Unlikely Place: a Former Mail Truck". The New York Times.
  20. ↑ Darlene (30 April 2014). "Sheer Birinj – Afghan Rice Pudding". International Cuisine.
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