West Atlantic languages

The West Atlantic languages (also the Atlantic languages[note 1] or North Atlantic languages[1]) of West Africa are a major subgroup of the Niger–Congo languages.

West Atlantic
Atlantic
(obsolete)
Geographic
distribution
Westernmost Africa
Linguistic classificationNiger–Congo?
GlottologNone

The Atlantic languages are spoken along the Atlantic coast from Senegal to Liberia, though transhumant Fula speakers have spread eastward and are found in large numbers across the Sahel, from Senegal to Nigeria, Cameroon and Sudan. Wolof of Senegal and several of the Fula languages are the most populous Atlantic languages, with several million speakers each. Other significant members include Serer and the Jola dialect cluster of Senegal. Temne, a major language of Sierra Leone, was included in the Atlantic subgroup in earlier classifications but in modern proposals, it is no longer grouped within Atlantic.

Most Atlantic languages exhibit consonant mutation and have noun-class systems similar to those of the distantly related Bantu languages. Some languages are tonal, while others such as Wolof have pitch-accent systems. The basic word order tends to be SVO.

Classification and scope

Traditional classification

The Atlantic family was first identified by Sigismund Koelle in 1854. In the early 20th century, Carl Meinhof claimed that Fula was a Hamitic language, but August von Klingenhaben and Joseph Greenberg's work conclusively established Fula's close relationship with Wolof and Serer. W. A. A. Wilson notes that the validity of the family as a whole rests on much weaker evidence, though it is clear that the languages are part of the Niger–Congo family, based on evidence such as a shared noun-class system. However, comparative work on Niger–Congo is in its infancy. Classifications of Niger–Congo, usually based on lexicostatistics, generally propose that the various Atlantic languages are rather divergent, but less so than Mande and other languages that lack noun classes.

David Sapir (1971) proposed a classification of Atlantic into three branches, a northern group, a southern group, and the divergent Bijago language of the Bissagos Islands off the coast of Guinea-Bissau:[2]

Sapir's classification is widely cited in handbooks on African linguistics (e.g. Bender 1989, Williamson & Blench 2000), and is also used in the Ethnologue (22nd ed., 2019).

Recent proposals

The unity of the Atlantic languages—as traditionally defined—has long been questioned, e.g. Dalby (1965), who argued for the Mel languages as a primary branch of Niger–Congo. At the current state of research, the wide concept of Atlantic (i.e. including the Southern languages) within the Niger–Congo family is no longer held up.[3]

Segerer (2010, 2016[4]) and Pozdniakov & Segerer (2017) propose a narrowed-down version of the Atlantic languages by excluding all languages of the southern branch, which they treat as four primary branches (viz. Sua, Limba, Gola, and the Mel languages) within the Niger–Congo family. The Bak languages are split from the northern languages as a coordinate subbranch within Atlantic (in the narrow sense). Bijago is assigned to the Bak languages.

Güldemann (2018) goes even further, and also treats Nalu and MbulungishBaga Mboteni ("Rio Nunez") as unclassified first-order branches of Niger–Congo.[5]

Vossen & Dimmendaal (2020)

Revised classification of the Atlantic languages (Vossen & Dimmendaal 2020:166,[6] from Pozdniakov & Segerer[7]):

Atlantic
  • North
    • Wolof: Wolof, Lebu
    • Nyun-Buy
      • Nyun (Gunyaamolo, Gujaher, Gubëeher, etc.)
      • Buy (Kasanga, Kobiana)
    • Tenda-Jaad
      • Tenda: Basari, Tanda, Bedik, Bapen; Konyagi
      • Jaad: Biafada; Badiaranke
    • Fula-Sereer
      • Fula (Pular, Pulaar, Fulfulde, etc.)
      • Sereer
    • Cangin
      • Palor, Ndut
      • Noon, Laala, Saafi
    • Nalu
      • Nalu
      • Bage Fore
      • Baga Mboteni
  • Bak
    • Balant: Ganja, Kentohe, Fraase
    • Joola-Manjaku
      • Joola: Fogny, Banjal, Kasa, Kwaatay, Karon, Ejamat, Keeraak, etc.; Bayot ?
      • Manjaku
      • Bok, Cur, Bassarel
      • Pepel
      • Mankanya
    • Bijogo: Kamona, Kagbaaga, Kajoko

Merrill (2021)

Merrill (2021) proposes that Atlantic (or North Atlantic) is not a valid subgroup of Niger-Congo, but rather considers each of the established Atlantic "branches" to all be primary branches of Niger-Congo. Furthermore, Merrill suggests that due to the divergence of the Atlantic languages, the homeland of Niger-Congo may lie in the northwest of sub-Saharan Africa.[1]

North Atlantic geographical area
  • Fula-Sereer (branch)
    • Fula
    • Sereer
  • Cangin
  • Wolof
  • Bainunk-Kobiana-Kasanga (branch)
    • Kobiana
    • Gujaher
    • Gubëeher
    • Guñaamolo
  • Biafada-Pajade (branch)
    • Pajade
    • Biafada
  • Tenda (branch)
    • Konyagi
    • Bassari
    • Bedik
  • Bak (branch)
    • Joola
    • Manjak
    • Balanta
  • Bijogo (branch)

Merrill (2021) also notes that Tenda and Biafada-Pajade share similarities with each other, and may possibly form a linkage.

Reconstruction

Proto-Atlantic lexical innovations reconstructed by Pozdniakov & Segerer (2017):[8]

GlossProto-Atlantic
star*kʷʊʈ
to fly*yiiʈ
to die*keʈ
to rot*pʊʈ
three*taʈ
eye*giʈ
liver*heɲ
feather*lung
hair*wal
baobab*bak ~ *ɓak
to see*jok (?)
tree trunk*dik
to give birth*was / *bas

Wilson (2007:36) also proposed the tentative Proto-Atlantic reconstructions:[9]

GlossProto-Atlantic
head*kop
ear*nop
eye*kit
mouth*tum

Sample Atlantic cognate sets:[8]

Language‘eye’‘liver’‘feather’‘hair’‘baobab’‘to see’‘tree trunk’‘to give birth’
Proto-Atlantic*giʈ*heɲ*lung*wal*b/ɓak*jok?*dik*w/bas
Tenda-Jaad*gəɬ*ceeɲ*dɔ̰̀ngw*mbalɓakjeek?*bas
Fula-Sereer*gitxeeɲwiilɓaak/ɓokjaklek-ɓas-il
Nyun-Buy*giɬkɩɩɲlungbɔknjug?leex/rienbɔs
Wolof-ətdung*-warjàkkwəs-in
Cangin*ʔəɬ*kɛɛɲɓaʔ/ɓɔh*dikɓəs
Nalucetbɛɛkyɛkdik/lik
Joolakiɬhɩɩɲ*walbakjʊknʊk-anβɔs
Manjak*kiɬ*-ɩɲlung*wɛlbakjʊkbas
Balant*kít/githɩ́ɩ́ɲɛ̰̀wul/hulndíŋá/ndiik
Bijogoŋɛrunk-wajoŋnik-an-gbʸa

Reconstructions for indivuadal West Atlantic branches can be found in Merrill (2021).[1]

Numerals

Comparison of numerals in individual languages:[10]

ClassificationLanguage12345678910
Senegambian, SererSereer-Sine (1)leŋƭiktadiknahikƥetikɓetaa fo leŋ (5 + 1)ɓetaa ƭak (5 + 2)ɓetaa tadak (5 + 3)ɓetaa nahak (5 + 4)xarɓaxaay
Senegambian, SererSerer-Sine (2)leŋɗiktadiknahikɓedikɓetuː fa leŋ (5 + 1)ɓetuː ɗik (5 + 2)ɓetuː tadik (5 + 3)ɓetuː nahik (5 + 4)xarɓaxay
Senegambian, Fula-WolofWolofbɛn:ɲaːrɲɛtːɲɛntdʒuroːmdʒuroːm bɛn: (5 + 1)dʒuroːm ɲaːr (5 + 2)dʒuroːm ɲɛtː (5 + 3)dʒuroːm ɲɛnt (5 + 4)fukː
Senegambian, Fula-WolofCE Niger Fulfuldeɡɔ́ʔɔ̀ɗíɗitátìnáìɟóèɟóé ɡɔ̀l (5 + 1)ɟóé ɗìɗi (5 + 2)ɟóé tátì (5 + 3)ɟóé náì (5 + 4)sáppò
Senegambian, Fula-WolofWestern Niger Fulfuldeɡoʔoɗiɗitatinajd͡ʒojd͡ʒeeɡom (5 + 1)d͡ʒeɗɗi (5 + 2)d͡ʒeetati (5 + 3)d͡ʒeenaj (5 + 4)sappo
Senegambian, Fula-WolofAdamawa Fulfuldeɡoʔoɗiɗitatinajd͡ʒowid͡ʒoweːɡo (5 + 1)d͡ʒoweːɗiɗi (5 + 2)d͡ʒoweːtati (5 + 3)d͡ʒoweːnaj (5 + 4)sappo
Senegambian, Fula-WolofFulfulde Maasinaɡoʔoɗiɗitatinajd͡ʒojd͡ʒeːɡom (5 + 1)d͡ʒeɗ:i (5 + 2)d͡ʒet:i (5 + 3)d͡ʒeːnaj (5 + 4)sap:o
Senegambian, Fula-WolofPularɡooto / ɡooɗiɗitatinajd͡ʒowid͡ʒeeɡo (5 + 1)d͡ʒeeɗiɗi (5 + 2)d͡ʒeetati (5 + 3)d͡ʒeenaj (5 + 4)sappo
Senegambian, Fula-WolofPulaarɡooɗiɗitatinajd͡ʒojd͡ʒeeɡom (5 + 1)d͡ʒeeɗiɗi (5 + 2)d͡ʒeetati (5 + 3)d͡ʒeenaj (5 + 4)sappo
Eastern Senegal-Guinea, BanyunBaïnounk Gubëeher-nduk-na:k-lal:-rendekcilax (lit: hand)cilax aŋɡa -ndukcilax aŋɡa -na:kcilax aŋɡa -lal:cilax aŋɡa -rɛndɛkha:lax (litː feet)
Eastern Senegal-Guinea, BanyunGunyaamolo Banyun (1)uŋɡondukhanakkhalallharɛnɛkhɐməkilahɐməkila iŋɡi uŋɡondukhɐməkila iŋɡi hanakkhɐməkila iŋɡi halallhɐməkila iŋɡi harɛnɛkhaala (litː hands)
Eastern Senegal-Guinea, BanyunGunyaamolo Banyun (2)-duk-nak-lall-rɛnɛk-məkila-məkila iŋɡi -duk (5 + 1)-məkila iŋɡi -nak (5 + 2)-məkila iŋɡi -lall (5 + 3)-məkila iŋɡi -rɛnɛk (5 + 4)ha-lah (litː hands)
Eastern Senegal-Guinea, NunKasanga (Cassanga)-tɛɛna-naandiid-taar-sannaʔjurooɡjurooɡ -tɛɛna (5 + 1)jurooɡ -naandiid (5 + 2)ɡasansanna (cf. 'four')jurooɡ -sannaʔ (5 + 4)ŋaarooɡ (litː 'fives')
Eastern Senegal-Guinea, NunKobiana-tee(na)-naŋ-teeh-sannaŋjurooɡjurooɡ -tee(na) (5 + 1)jurooɡ -tee(na) + ? (5 + 1 + x)sannaŋ sannaŋ (4 + 4)sannaŋ sannaŋ + ? (4 + 4 + x)ntaajã
Eastern Senegal-Guinea, TendaBadyarapainɛ / pakkãmaaemat͡ʃawmannekobədakobəda ŋka-inɛ (5 + 1)kobəda ŋka maae (5 + 2)kobəda ŋka mat͡ʃaw (5 + 3)kobəda ŋka manne (5 + 4)pappo
Eastern Senegal-Guinea, TendaOniyan (Bassari)imɐtɓəkiɓətɐsɓənɐxɓəɲɟɔɓəɲɟɔŋɡimɐt (5 + 1)ɓəɲɟɔŋɡəɓəki (5 + 2)ɓəɲɟɔŋɡəɓətɐs (5 + 3)ɓəɲɟɔŋɡəɓənɐx (5 + 4)ɛpəxw
Eastern Senegal-Guinea, TendaBiafada (1)nəmmabihebiɟobiniɡəbədampaaɟimpaaɟi ŋɡa ɲi (6 + ɲi)waseleberebobapo
Eastern Senegal-Guinea, TendaBiafada (2)-nnəmma-ke-jo-nnihiɡəbədampaajimpaaji nyi (6 + nyi)woselibereboba-ppo
Eastern Senegal-Guinea, TendaBudik (Tenda)riye, diye, iyexi, kisas, tasmaxala, maxanaco(nje)co nɡə iye (5 + 1)co nɡə xi (5 + 2)co nɡə sas (5 + 3)co nɡə maxala (5 + 4)ipox
Eastern Senegal-Guinea, TendaWamey (Konyagi)rjɐmpɔwɐhiwɐrɐrwɐr̃ɐhmbəɗmbəɗ ɡə rjɐw̃ (5 + 1)mbəɗ ɡə wɐhi (5 + 2)mbəɗ ɡə wɐrɐr (5 + 3)mbəɗ ɡə wɐnɐh (5 + 4)pəhw
BijagoBijago (Bijogo)nɔɔdn-somɲ-ɲɔɔkɔya-aɡɛnɛkn-deɔkɔ(n-deɔkɔ) na nɔɔd (5 + 1)(n-deɔkɔ) ni n-som (5 + 2)(n-deɔkɔ) ni ɲ-ɲɔɔkɔ (5 + 3)(n-deɔkɔ) na ya-aɡɛnɛk (5 + 4)n-ruakɔ
Bak, Balant-GanjaBalanta-Ganja-woda-sibi-aabí-tahla-jíiffaajfaajinɡooda (6 + 1) ?taataala (2 x 4) ?-jíntahla (5 + 4) ?-jímmin
Bak, Balant-GanjaBalanta-Kentohefho:dn / ho:dnksibmkhobmktahlit͡ʃɪf (litː hand)t͡ʃɪf kə fhdon (5 + 1)t͡ʃɪf kə ksibm (5 + 2)t͡ʃɪf kə khobm (5 + 3)t͡ʃɪf kə ktalhi (5 + 4)t͡ʃɪːfmɛn (litː whole hands)
Bak, Jola, BayotBayotɛndontɪɡˑɡafɜzɪiβɛɪoɾɔ (litː 'one hand')oɾɔ-nenˑdon ('one hand plus one')oɾɔ-niɾɪɡˑɡa ('one hand plus two')oɾɔ-nifɛzɪ ('one hand plus three')oɾɔ-niβɛɪ ('one hand plus four')ɡʊtˑtɪɛ ('two hands' )
Bak, Jola, BayotSenegal Bayotɛndonɪɾɪɡːəi'feɟiɪ'βɛjɔɾɔ (litː 'one hand')ɔɾɔ nɪ 'ɛndon ('one hand plus one')ɔɾɔ nɪ 'ɪɾiɡːə ('one hand plus two')ɔɾɔ nɪ i'feɟi ('one hand plus three')ɔɾɔ nɪ ɪ'βɛj ('one hand plus four')ʊ'sɛβɔkɔ ('two hands' )
Bak, Jola, Jola ProperBandialjɐnʊɾsuːβɐsi'fʰəʝisɪ'bɐɣɪɾfʊ'tɔxfʊ'tɔx nɪ 'jɐnʊɾ (5 + 1)fʊ'tɔx nɪ 'suːβɐ (5 + 2)fʊ'tɔx nɪ si'fʰəʝi (5 + 3)fʊ'tɔx nɪ sɪ'bɐɣɪɾ (5 + 4)ɣʊ'ɲɛn (litː hands)
Bak, Jola, Jola ProperGusilayjanɷr ɷ = ʊsuuβasifːəɟisɪbːaɣɪrfɷtɔxfɷtɔx nɪ janɷr (5 + 1)fɷtɔx nɪ suuβa (5 + 2)fɷtɔx nɪ sifːəɟi (5 + 3)fɷtɔx nɪ sɪbːaɣɪr (5 + 4)ɡɷɲɛn (litː hands)
Bak, Jola, Jola ProperJola-Fonyi (Dyola) (1)jəkonsiɡabasifeeɡiirsibaakiirfutɔkfutɔk di jəkon (5 + 1)futɔk di siɡaba (5 + 2)futɔk di sifeeɡiir (5 + 3)futɔk di sibaakiir (5 + 4)uɲɛn
Bak, Jola, Jola ProperJola-Fonyi (Dyola) (2)jəkonsiɡabasifeeɡiirsibaakiirfutɔkfutɔk di jəkon (5 + 1)futɔk di siɡaba (5 + 2)futɔk di sifeeɡiir (5 + 3)futɔk di sibaakiir (5 + 4)uɲɛn
Bak, Jola, Jola ProperJola-Kaasajɐnɔsil̥uβəsi'həːɟisɪ'bɐkɪːhʊ'tɔkhʊ'tɔk lɪ 'jɐnɔ (5 + 1)hʊ'tɔk lɪ 'sil̥uβə (5 + 2)hʊ'tɔk lɪ si'həːɟi (5 + 3)hʊ'tɔk lɪ sɪ'bɐkɪː (5 + 4)kʊ'ŋɛn (litː hands)
Bak, Jola, Jola ProperKaronyɔːnɔːlsusupəksihəːciːlsɪpɐːkɪːlɪsɐkɪsɐk nɪ yɔːnɔːl (5 + 1)ɪsɐk nɪŋ susupək (5 + 2)ɪsɐk nɪŋ sihəːciːl (5 + 3)ɪsɐk nɪŋ sɪpɐːkɪːl (5 + 4)ŋɐːsʊwɐn susupək
Bak, Jola, Jola ProperKwatay (Kwaataay)hifeeneŋkúsubakíhaajikibaakirhutokhutok ni hifeeneŋ (5 + 1)hutok nu kúsuba (5 + 2)hutok ni kíhaaji (5 + 3)hutok ni kibaakir (5 + 4)sumoŋu
Bak, Manjaku-PapelMankanyaulolɛ̂nŋɨ́tɛpŋɨ̀wàdʒɛ̀ntŋɨbakɨrkaɲɛnpadʒɨnawuloŋbakɾɛ̂ŋkaɲɛ́ŋkalɔŋiɲɛ̂n (litː hands)
Bak, Manjaku-PapelPapelo-loŋŋ-puɡusŋ-ɟenʂŋ-uakrk-ɲenepaaɟɟandbakarik-ɲeŋ k-loŋ (< 10 - 1 ?)o-diseɲene
CanginLaalaa (Lehar)wi̘ːno̘ːkɐnɐkkɐːhɐjniːkiːsjə̘tu̘ːsjitnɛːnɔː (5 + 1)jitnɐkɐnɐk (5 + 2)jitnɐkɐːhɐj (5 + 3)jitnɐniːkiːs (5 + 4)dɐːŋkɛh
CanginNdutyinë [jinə]ana [ʔana]éeyë [ʔéeyə]iniil [ʔiniːl]iip [ʔiːp]pëenë [ˈpəːnə] (5 + 1)paana [ˈpaːna] (5 + 2)peeye [ˈpeːjɛ] (5 + 3)payniil [ˈpainiːl] (5 + 4)sabboo [ˈsabɔː]
CanginNoonˈwiːnɔ: / ˈwitnɔːˈkanakˈkaːhajˈnɪkɪːsˈjətu̘ːsjɪtˈnɪːnɔː (5 + 1)jɪtnaˈkanak (5 + 2)jɪtnaˈkaːhaj (5 + 3)jɪtnaˈnɪkɪːs (5 + 4)ˈdaːŋkah
CanginPalor (Falor)yinoanaeyeiniiliippoyno (5 + 1)paana (5 + 2)peeye (5 + 3)payniil (5 + 4)saɓo
CanginSaafi-Saafi (Safen)ˈjiːnɔˈkanak̚ˈkaːhayˈniːkisjaːtus (< 'hand jaːh')ˌjiːs na ˈjiːno (5 + 1)ˌjiːs na ˈkanak̚ (5 + 2)ˌjiːs na ˈkaːhay (5 + 3)ˌjiːs na ˈniːkis (5 + 4)ˈndaŋkiaːh
Mbulungish-NaluMbulungish (Baga-Foré)kibenʃidi / tʃidiʃitɛt / tʃitɛtʃinɛŋ / tʃinɛŋsusɑsɑkben (5 + 1)sɑkdi (5 + 2)sɑktɛt (5 + 3)sɑknɛŋ (5 + 4)ɛtɛlɛ
Mbulungish-NaluNalu (1)deːndɪkbilɛpaːtbiːnaːŋteːduŋteːduŋ ti ndeːndɪk (5 + 1)teːduŋ ti bilɛ (5 + 2)teːduŋ ti paːt (5 + 3)teːduŋ ti biːnaːŋ (5 + 4)tɛːblɛ ~ tɛbɪlɛ
Mbulungish-NaluNalu (2)deendekbilɛpaatbiinaaŋteedoŋteedoŋ ti mdeendek (5 + 1)teedoŋ ti bilɛ (5 + 2)teedoŋ ti paat (5 + 3)teedoŋ ti biinaaŋ (5 + 4)tɛɛblɛ
LimbaWest-Central Limbahantʰekaayekataatikanaŋkasɔhikasɔŋ hantʰe (5 + 1)kasɔŋ kaaye (5 + 2)kasɔŋ kataati (5 + 3)kasɔŋ kanaŋ (5 + 4)kɔɔhi
LimbaEast Limbahantʰekalekatatikanaŋkasɔhikasɔŋ hantʰe (5 + 1)kasɔŋ kale (5 + 2)kasɔŋ katati (5 + 3)kasɔŋ kanaŋ (5 + 4)kɔhi
SuaMansoanka (Sua)sɔncenb-rarb-nansɔŋɡunsɔŋɡun də sɔnsɔn (5 + 1)sɔŋɡun də mcen (5 + 2)sɔŋɡun də mbrar (5 + 3)sɔŋɡun də mnan (5 + 4)tɛŋi
Mel, Bullom-KissiBullom So(Mani)nìmbúlnìncə́ŋnìnránìŋnyɔ́l / -nyɔ́lnìmánmɛ̀m-búl (5 + 1)mɛ̀ncə́ŋ (5 + 2)mɛ̀nrá (5 + 3)mɛ̀nnyɔ́l (5 + 4)wàm
Mel, Bullom-KissiSherbrobultɪŋhyo̠l o̠ = French au in aube' mɛnmɛn-buk (5 + 1)mɛn-tɪŋ (5 + 2)mɛn-ra (5 + 3)mɛn-hyo̠l (5 + 4)wāŋ
Mel, Bullom-KissiSouthern Kissipìlɛ̀ɛ́mùúŋŋɡàáhìɔ́ɔ́lúŋùɛ̀ɛ́núŋǒmpûm (5 + 1)ŋǒmɛ́ú (5 + 2)ŋǒmáá (5 + 3)ŋǒmàhìɔ́ɔ́lú (5 + 4)tɔ́
Mel, GolaGolaɡuùŋtìyèetaaitiinàŋnɔ̀ɔ̀nɔ̀ŋnɔ̀ɔ̀nɔ̀ŋ diè ɡuùŋ (5 + 1)nɔ̀ɔ̀nɔ̀ŋ leè tìyèe (5 + 2)nɔ̀ɔ̀nɔ̀ŋ leè taai (5 + 3)nɔ̀ɔ̀nɔ̀ŋ leè tiinàŋ (5 + 4)zììyà
Mel, Temne, BagaBaga Mandoripiinmarəmmasaasmaaŋkəlɛɛŋkəcaamətkəcaamtr tiin (5 + 1)kəcaamtr marəm (5 + 2)kəcaamtr masaas (5 + 3)kəcaamtr maaŋkəlɛɛŋ (5 + 4)ocoo
Mel, Temne, BagaBaga Sitemupinmɛrɨŋmaːs / mãsmaŋkɨlɛkɨt͡ʃamɨtt͡ʃamɨtin (5 + 1)t͡ʃamɨmɛrɨŋ (5 + 2)t͡ʃamɨmaːs (5 + 3)t͡ʃamɨmaŋkɨlɛ (5 + 4)wɨt͡ʃɔ
Mel, Temne, BagaLandomatɛ̀nmʌ̀rəŋmʌ̀sasmànkᵊlɛkəcàmətkəcʌ̀ntin (5 + 1)kəcʌ̀ntᵊ mʌ̀rəŋ (5 + 2)kəcʌ̀ntᵊ̀ mʌ̀sas (5 + 3)kəcʌ̀ntᵊ mànkᵊlɛ (5 + 4)
Mel, Temne, Temne-BantaTemne (Themne) (1)pínpɨrʌ́ŋpɨsaspanlɛtamát̪dukín (5 + 1)dɛrɨ́ŋ (5 + 2)dɛsas (5 + 3)dɛŋanlɛ (5 + 4)tɔfɔ́t
Mel, Temne, Temne-BantaTemne (Themne) (2)pìnpə̀rə́ŋpə̀sàspànlɛ̀tàmàθdùkìn (5 + 1)dɛ̀rə̀ŋ (5 + 2)dɛ̀sàs (5 + 3)dɛ̀ŋànlɛ̀ (5 + 4)tɔ̀fɔ̀t
Mel, Temne, Temne-BantaTemne (Themne) (3)p-inpə-rəŋpə-sasp-aŋlɛtamathtamath rukin (5 + 1)tamath dɛrəŋ (5 + 2)tamath rɛsasa (5 + 3)tamath rɛŋaŋlɛ (5 + 4)tɔfʌt

Notes

  1. "West Atlantic" is the traditional term, following Diedrich Hermann Westermann; "Atlantic" is more typical in recent work, particularly since Bendor-Samuel (1989), but is also used specifically for the northern branch of West Atlantic.

References

Citations

  1. Merrill, Jack. 2021. Atlantic groups as primary Niger-Congo branches. Diedrich Westermann-Workshop (West-central African linguistic history between Macro-Sudan Belt and Niger-Congo: commemorating Diedrich Westermann’s legacy and the 100th anniversary of the Berlin professorship for African languages), 4–6 November 2021, Humboldt University of Berlin. (slides)
  2. Sapir (1971), pp. 48–49.
  3. Güldemann (2018), pp. 180–183.
  4. Segerer, Guillaume (2016). A new, innovation-based classification of Atlantic languages. ACAL 47, Berkeley, Mar 23–26, 2016.
  5. Güldemann (2018), p. 188.
  6. Vossen, Rainer and Gerrit J. Dimmendaal (eds.). 2020. The Oxford Handbook of African Languages. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  7. Pozdniakov, K., and Segerer, G. (forthcoming). ‘A genealogical classification of Atlantic languages’, in F. Lüpke (ed.). The Oxford Guide to the Atlantic Languages of West Africa. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  8. Pozdniakov & Segerer (2017).
  9. Wilson, William André Auquier. 2007. Guinea Languages of the Atlantic group: description and internal classification. (Schriften zur Afrikanistik, 12.) Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang.
  10. Chan, Eugene (2019). "The Niger-Congo Language Phylum". Numeral Systems of the World's Languages.

Bibliography

  • Dalby, David (1965). "The Mel languages: a reclassification of southern 'West Atlantic'." African language studies 6, 1–17.
  • Güldemann, Tom (2018). "Historical linguistics and genealogical language classification in Africa". In Güldemann, Tom (ed.). The Languages and Linguistics of Africa. The World of Linguistics series. Vol. 11. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 58–444. doi:10.1515/9783110421668-002. ISBN 978-3-11-042606-9.
  • Holst, Jan Henrik. "Reconstructing the mutation system of Atlantic." Neuried, 2008.
  • Pozdniakov, Konstantin. "Etudes atlantiques comparatives : questions de méthodologie." Mémoires de la Société linguistique de Paris, XV, 2007, p. 93–119.
  • Pozdniakov, Konstantin. "Problèmes de l’étude comparative historique des langues atlantiques". Sprache und Geschichte in Afrika, 2007.
  • Pozdniakov, Konstantin & Segerer, Guillame. Reconstruction des pronoms atlantiques et typologie des systèmes pronominaux // Systèmes de marques personnelles en Afrique. Collection «Afrique et Langage », 8, 2004, p. 151–162.
  • Pozdniakov, Konstantin & Segerer, Guillame. Tradition et rupture dans les grammaires comparées de différentes familles de langues », 2007, p. 93-119.
  • Pozdniakov, Konstantin & Segerer, Guillaume (2017). "A Genealogical classification of Atlantic languages." (Draft) To appear in: Lüpke, Friederike (ed.) The Oxford guide to the Atlantic languages of West Africa: Oxford:Oxford University Press.
  • Guillaume Segerer & Florian Lionnet 2010. "'Isolates' in 'Atlantic'". Language Isolates in Africa workshop, Lyon, Dec. 4
  • Sapir, David (1971). "West Atlantic: An inventory of the languages, their noun class systems and consonant alternations." Current Trends in Linguistics 7:45–112. The Hague: Mouton.
  • Williamson, Kay and Blench, Roger (2000). "Niger-Congo." In Bernd Heine and Derek Nurse (eds.) African Languages: An Introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 11–42.
  • Wilson, W. A. A. (1989). Atlantic. In John Bendor-Samuel (Ed.), The Niger–Congo Languages. New York & London: University Press of America. pp. 81–104.
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