Kainji languages
The Kainji languages are a group of about 60 related languages spoken in west-central Nigeria. They form part of the Central Nigerian (Platoid) branch of Benue–Congo.
| Kainji | |
|---|---|
| Geographic distribution | Kainji Lake, Nigeria |
| Linguistic classification | Niger–Congo? |
| Subdivisions |
|
| Glottolog | kain1275 |
 The Kainji languages shown within the Middle Belt of central Nigeria | |
Demographics
Four of the most widely spoken Kainji languages are Tsuvadi (150,000), Cishingini and Tsishingini (100,000 each)—all from the Kambari branch; and Clela (C'lela, Lela) (100,000), of the Northwest Kainji branch. In total, there were about one million speakers of Kainji languages (1990s estimate) in Nigeria.
History
Proto-Kainji is estimated by Blench (2012) to be 3,000 to 4,000 years old. Its broken distribution today is likely due to the historical northward expansion of the Nupoid languages.[1]
Morphology
Proto-Kainji nominal prefixes:[2]
- *mV- for liquids and other mass nouns
- *u- for person, *ba- for people
- *kV- for diminutive and perhaps also augmentative; also found in some Plateau languages
Classification
The most divergent of the Kainji languages are Reshe, Laru and Lopa, which may form a branch together. Subclassification of the other branches is not yet clear. A bipartite division between East Kainji and West Kainji is no longer maintained, with West Kainji now being paraphyletic.
Blench (2012)
Blench's (2012) classification is:[1]
- Lakes: Reshe; Laru (Shen), Lopa (Rerang)
- Kainji proper (Central)
- Northwest Kainji (Lela)
- (branch)
McGill (2012)
A revised classification of the Kainji languages by McGill (2012) splits Kainji into the Lake and Central branches.[3]
- Kainji
Gerhardt (1983)
Classification of Plateau 1a (now West Kainji) and Plateau 1b (now East Kainji) languages by Gerhardt (1983),[4] based on Maddieson (1972):[5]
- Plateau 1a
- Laru-Lopa
- Reshe
- Kambari cluster
- Ngwoi, Kamuku cluster, Bassa-Kontagora, Ashaganna
- Bassa-Kaduna, Bassa-Kuta, Gurmana, Pongo, Baushi, Ura, Bassa-Kwomu
- Dakarkari, Duka, Pəku-Kəri-Wipsi cluster, Lyase
- Plateau 1b
- Kuda-Chamo, Butu-Ningi, Gyema, Taura, Lemoro-Sanga, Janji, Shani, Buji-Ibunu-Jere-Gus, Anaguta
- Kuzamaini, Kurama, Rumaya, Ruruma, Binawa, Kono, Surubu
- Kaivi, Kiballo, Kitimi, Kinuku, Dungi, Gure-Kahugu
- Amo
Names and locations
Below is a comprehensive list of Kainji language names, populations, and locations from Blench (2019).[6]
Note: West Kainji is geographical rather than genealogical.
| Group | Primary locations |
|---|---|
| East Kainji | Kauru LGA, Kaduna State and Bassa LGA, Plateau State |
| West Kainji | Rafi LGA, Niger State and Zuru and Yauri LGAs, Kebbi State (Kainji Lake area) |
East Kainji
West Kainji
| Language | Branch | Cluster | Dialects | Alternate spellings | Own name for language | Endonym(s) | Other names (location-based) | Other names for language | Exonym(s) | Speakers | Location(s) | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Hɨpɨna | Baushi | Supana | Tihɨpɨna | Vihɨpɨna pl. Ahɨpɨna | Niger State, Rafi LGA, Supana town | |||||||
| Mɨn | Baushi | Tiimɨn | Vʷinyi Mɨn pl. Ayi Mɨn | Bauchi Guda, Kukoki (name of largest town) | Niger State, Rafi LGA, 27 villages in 8 chiefships | |||||||
| Ndәkә | Baushi | Shena may be a dialect | Madaka | Tundәkә | Vundәkә pl. Andәka | Niger State, Rafi LGA, Madaka town | ||||||
| Rubu | Baushi | Niger State, Rafi LGA, Rubu town | ||||||||||
| Wãyã | Baushi | Wayam | Tũwãyã | Vũwãyã pl. Ãwãyã | Niger State, Rafi and Shiroro LGAs, Wayam town | |||||||
| Samburu | Baushi | Niger State, Rafi LGA, Samburu town | no data | |||||||||
| Gurmana | Eastern | estimated more than 3,000 (1989) | Niger State, Shiroro LGA. Gurmana town and nearby hamlets | |||||||||
| Cipu | Kambari | Kumbashi, Tikula, Ticihun, Tirisino, Tidipo, Tizoriyo, Tiddodimo | Cicipu | Tocipu | Acipa, Achipa, Achipawa, Atsipawa | Tәcәp Tochipo Tә–Sәgәmuk | Bucepo sg., Ucɛpo pl. Bu–Sәgәmuk sg. | 3,600 (1949 G&C) | Kebbi State, Sakaba LGA; Niger State, Mariga and Rafi LGA, Kaduna State Birnin Gwari LGA | |||
| Damakawa (extinct) | Kambari | Damakawa | Tidama’un (Cicipu name) | 500-1000 ethnic population, but language now has only a few rememberers | Kebbi State, Sakaba LGA, villages of Inguwar Kilo and Marandu | The dubious reliability of some of the data and the possibility of Cipu loans makes the classification of Damakawa slightly uncertain. | ||||||
| Kambari I cluster | Kambari | Kambari I | Kamberi | with Kambari II: 67,000 (1952 W&B); 100,000 (1973 SIL) | Niger State, Magama and Mariga LGAs; Kebbi State, Zuru and Yauri LGAs; Niger State, Borgu LGA | |||||||
| Agaɗi | Kambari | Kambari I | Tsɨgaɗi | Kakihum | Niger State, Mariga LGA | |||||||
| Avaɗi | Kambari | Kambari I | Abadi, Evadi | Tsɨvaɗi | Ibeto | Niger State, Magama LGA | ||||||
| Baangi | Kambari | Kambari I | Baangi | ciBaangi | sg. vuBaangi, pl. aBaangi | Bangawa (Hausa) | estimate more than 5,000 (1989) | Niger State, Kontagora LGA, Ukata town and nearby villages; probably also into adjacent Kebbi State, Yauri LGA | ||||
| Tsishingini | Kambari | Kambari I | Cishingini, Tsishingini | Mashingini pl. Ashingini | Salka | Niger State, Magama LGA | ||||||
| Yumu | Kambari | Kambari I | Yumu, Osisi | Niger State, Borgu LGA, at Yumu and Osisi | ||||||||
| Kambari II cluster | Kambari | Kambari II | Kamberi | with Kambari I: 67,000 (1952 W&B); 100,000 (1973 SIL) | Niger State, Magama LGA; Kebbi State, Zuru and Yauri LGAs; Kwara State, Borgu LGA | |||||||
| Agaushi | Kambari | Kambari II | Cishingini | Auna | Niger State, Magama LGA; Kebbi State, Yauri LGA | |||||||
| Akimba | Kambari | Kambari II | Tsɨkimba | Akimba | Auna, Wara | Niger State, Rijau, Magama LGA; Kebbi State, Yauri LGA | ||||||
| Cishingini, Nwanci | Kambari | Kambari II | Cishingini, Ngwәci | Cishingini, Tsɨwәnci | Mawunci sg. Ŋwәnci pl. | Agwara | Agara’iwa | Niger State, Borgu, Magama LGA; Kebbi State, Yauri LGA | ||||
| Zubazuba | Kamuku | Gamazuba | Igwama, Mariga LGA, Niger State | |||||||||
| Cinda-Regi-Rogo-Kuki cluster | Kamuku | Cinda-Regi-Rogo-Kuki | Kamuku | Niger State, Chanchagga, Rafi and Mariga LGAs | ||||||||
| Cinda | Kamuku | Cinda-Regi-Rogo-Kuki | Oxford Primary Maths 1 (1988?) | Jinda, Majinda | Tucindә | sg. Bucindә pl. Cindә | Niger State, Mariga, Rafi, Kusheriki LGAs, Kaduna State, Birnin Gwari LGA | |||||
| Regi | Kamuku | Cinda-Regi-Rogo-Kuki | Turegi | sg. Buregi pl. Regi | Niger State, Mariga, Rafi, Kusheriki LGAs, Kaduna State, Birnin Gwari LGA | |||||||
| Kuki | Kamuku | Cinda-Regi-Rogo-Kuki | Azana, Akubyar | Tiyar [town name not a language] | TuKuki | BuKuki pl. Kuki | Kamuku | Niger State, Mariga, Rafi, Kusheriki LGAs, Kaduna State, Birnin Gwari LGA | ||||
| Kwacika (extinct) | Kamuku | Cinda-Regi-Rogo-Kuki | Tukwacika | sg. Bukwacika pl. Kwacika | There was only one elderly speaker in the 1980s; hence, it is almost certainly extinct | Kaduna State, Birnin Gwari LGA | ||||||
| Kwagere | Kamuku | Cinda-Regi-Rogo-Kuki | Niger State, Chanchagga, Rafi and Mariga LGAs | |||||||||
| Basa-Gurara–Basa-Benue–Basa-Makurdi cluster | Kamuku–Basa | Basa-Gurara–Basa-Benue–Basa-Makurdi | ||||||||||
| Basa-Gurara | Kamuku–Basa | Basa-Gurara–Basa-Benue–Basa-Makurdi | Basa-Kwali | Federal Capital Territory, Yaba and Kwali LGAs, along the Gurara river | ||||||||
| Basa-Benue | Kamuku–Basa | Basa-Gurara–Basa-Benue–Basa-Makurdi | Basa | RuBasa | TuBasa | Abacha, Abatsa | Basa-Komo, Basa-Kwomu (not recommended) | 30,000 (1944-50 HDG); 100,000 (1973 SIL) | Kogi State, Bassa, and Ankpa LGAs, Nasarawa State, Nasarawa LGA | |||
| Basa-Makurdi | Kamuku–Basa | Benue State, Makurdi LGA, several villages on the north bank of the Benue, northwest of Makurdi | no data | |||||||||
| Basa-Gumna–Basa-Kontagora cluster (extinct?) | Kamuku–Basa | Basa-Gumna–Basa-Kontagora (extinct?) | ||||||||||
| Basa-Gumna (extinct) | Kamuku–Basa | Basa-Gumna–Basa-Kontagora (extinct?) | Gwadara-Basa, Basa Kuta, Basa-Kaduna | Only 2 known semi-speakers in 1987. The population known as Basawa speaks only Hausa. Probably now extinct | Niger State, Chanchaga LGA | |||||||
| Basa-Kontagora (extinct) | Kamuku–Basa | Basa-Gumna–Basa-Kontagora (extinct?) | Fewer than 10 speakers in 1987. Probably now extinct | Niger State, Mariga LGA, N.E. of Kontagora | ||||||||
| Basa-Gurmana | Kamuku–Basa | Kɔrɔmba | more than 2,000 speakers (1987) | Niger State, border of Rafi and Chanchaga LGAs, Kafin Gurmana | ||||||||
| Rogo | Kamuku–Basa | Cinda-Regi-Rogo-Kuki | TɔRɔgɔ | BɔRɔgɔ sg. Rɔgɔ pl. | Ucanja Kamuku | Niger State, Rafi and Kusheriki LGAs, around Ucanja town, 30 km northwest of Kagara. | ||||||
| Fungwa | Kamuku–Basa | Tufungwa | Afungwa | Ura, Ula | 900 (1949 H.D. Gunn) | Niger State, Rafi LGA, at Gulbe, Gabi Tuƙurbe, Urenciki, Ringa and Utana | ||||||
| Hùngwә̀ryə̀ | Kamuku–Basa | Dialects: Bitbit (Kwabitu), Lәklәk (Karaku), Jinjin (Makangara), Wũswũs (Karaiya), Tәmbәrjә (Tambere) | Cәhungwә̀ryə̀, Tʷə̀hungwә̀ryə̀ [ʨə̀hungwә̀ryə̀] | Bùhùngwə̀ryə̀ sg., ə̀hùngwə̀ryə̀ pl. | Ngwoi, Ngwe, Ungwe, Ingwe, Nkwoi, Ngwai, Ungwai, Hungworo | 1000 (1949 HDG), 5000 (2007 est.) | Niger State, Rafi, Kusheriki LGA, around Kagara and Maikujeri towns | |||||
| Shama–Sambuga cluster | Kamuku–Basa | Shama–Sambuga | Tushama | sg. Bushama, pl. Ushama | Kamuku | Niger State, Rafi LGA | ||||||
| Shama | Kamuku–Basa | Shama–Sambuga | Tushama | Bushama sg. Ushama pl. | Niger State, Rafi LGA, Ushama [=Kawo] town. 15 km northwest of Kagara | |||||||
| Sambuga (extinct) | Kamuku–Basa | Shama–Sambuga | Possibly extinct (2008) | Niger State, Rafi LGA, Sambuga town. 10 km northwest of Kagara | ||||||||
| Shen | Lake | Laro, Laru | Laruwa | 1,000 (1992 est.) | Niger State, Borgu LGA | |||||||
| Rop | Lake | Lupa, Lopa | Kirikjir | Djiri | Lopawa | 960 (NAT 1950); 5,000 (1992 est.) | Niger State, Borgu LGA, Kebbi State, Yauri LGA. At least 6 villages on the east shore of Kainji Lake plus two others on the western shore. | |||||
| Tsupamini | Lake | Lopa | Lopanci | Lopawa | 960 (NAT 1950); 5,000 (1992 est.). Global estimate with Rop | Niger State, Borgu LGA, Kebbi State, Yauri LGA. At least 6 villages on the east shore of Kainji Lake plus two others on the west shore. | ||||||
| Reshe | Lake | Birәmi (South), Bәmәmәdu (Northwest), Bәpalame (Northeast). Harris (1930:321) claims a ‘secret dialect’ called Tsudalupe which = Bәmәmәdu. | Tsure Ja | Tsureshe | Bareshe | Gunganci | Gungawa, Yaurawa | 15,000 (1931 G&C); 30,000 (1973 SIL) | Kebbi State, Yauri LGA; Niger State, Borgu LGA | |||
| Hun–Saare | Northern | Western (sSaare) (around Dukku), Eastern (tHun) (around Rijau), Tungan Bunu | Ethun | tHun, sSaare | Hunnɛ | Duka | Dukanci | 19,700 (1949 Gunn and Conant); 30,000 (1980 UBS) | Kebbi State, Sakaba LGA; Niger State, Rijau LGA | |||
| Kag–Fer–Jiir–Kar–Koor–Ror–[Us]–Zuksun cluster | Northern | Kag–Fer–Jiir–Kar–Koor–Ror–[Us]–Zuksun | The name ut-Main has been adopted by various members of this cluster as a cover term for these languages, but whether it will be widely adopted remains to be seen. | Fakanci, Fakkanci | 12,300 (1949 G&C) | Kebbi State, Zuru and Wasagu LGAs, west of Dabai | ||||||
| Kag | Northern | Kag–Fer–Jiir–Kar–Koor–Ror–[Us]–Zuksun | tKag | sg. woo Kag, pl. Kagne | Faka, Fakai (town name), Fakanci, Fakkanci | Pәku–Nu (cLela name) | Kebbi State, Zuru LGA, Mahuta and Fakai areas | |||||
| Fer | Northern | Kag–Fer–Jiir–Kar–Koor–Ror–[Us]–Zuksun | tFer | sg. wasFer, pl. asFer | Kukum Wipsi–Ni (cLela name) | Kebbi State, Zuru LGA, around Kukum town | ||||||
| Jiәr | Northern | Kag–Fer–Jiir–Kar–Koor–Ror–[Us]–Zuksun | tJiәr | sg. wauJiәr, pl. aJiәr | Gelanci Serim | Gelawa, Geeri–ni | Kebbi State, Zuru LGA, around Bajidda; Rijau LGA, Niger State | |||||
| Kәr | Northern | Kag–Fer–Jiir–Kar–Koor–Ror–[Us]–Zuksun | tKәr | sg. wauKәr, pl. Kәrne | Kela, Adoma Kelanci Kilinci | Keri–Ni Kelawa | Kebbi State, Zuru and Wasagu LGAs, north of Mahuta but south of the Kag river | |||||
| Koor | Northern | Kag–Fer–Jiir–Kar–Koor–Ror–[Us]–Zuksun | t–ma–Koor | sg. wauKoor, pl. aKoor | Kebbi State, Zuru LGA, around Bakara | |||||||
| Ror | Northern | Kag–Fer–Jiir–Kar–Koor–Ror–[Us]–Zuksun | Dialect used for language development | ǝt–ma–Ror | sg. wauRor, pl. aRor | Tudawa d–Gwan | Kebbi State, Zuru LGA around Birnin Tudu | |||||
| Us | Northern | Kag–Fer–Jiir–Kar–Koor–Ror–[Us]–Zuksun | Us have no specific dialect but speak like the Ror | tUs | sg. wauUs, pl. aUs, asUs | Kebbi State, Zuru LGA, west of Fakai | ||||||
| Zuksun | Northern | Kag–Fer–Jiir–Kar–Koor–Ror–[Us]–Zuksun | tZuksun | sg. wauZuksun, pl. aZuksun | Zusu Wipsi–ni | Kebbi State, Zuru LGA around Tungan Kuka, south of Fakai | ||||||
| Wuri-Gwamhyә–Mba | Northern | Gwamfi | wa–Gwamhi sg. a–Gwamhi pl. and wa–Wuri sg. a–Wuri pl. | Banganci | Lyase–ne Dәknu Bangawa for Gwamhi | Two peoples with one language | Kebbi State, Wasagu LGA; Gwamhi around Danko town and Wuri around Maga town | The term Wurkum is applied to the Kyak, Banda, Kulung, Kwonci, Maghdi, Kholok, Mingang, Pero, Piya, and Nyam group, several of which remain to be investigated. | ||||
| cLela | Northwestern | Zuru, Ribah | cLela (Clela, C–Lela), Lelna | Kәlela sg., Lelna pl. | Chilala Dakarci | Lalawa, Dakarkari, Dakkarkari, Kalla–Kalla, Cala–Cala | 47,000 (1949 G&C); 69,000 (1971 Welmers) | Kebbi State, Zuru, Sakaba and Wasagu LGAs; Niger State, Rijau LGA. Around Zuru town | ||||
| Rin | Shiroro | Awәgә is sometimes classified as a dialect of Rin, but it may in fact be a distinct but vanishing language spoken by one Rin clan. | Tә̀rĩ́, Tarin | sg. Bùrĩ,́ pl. Arĩ ́ | Arringeu, Pongu, Pongo, Pangu | 3,675 (1949 HDG); >20,000 (1988) | Niger State, Rafi LGA, near Tegina | Despite the indigenous name, forms of Pangu are preferred by the community for publications purposes. |
Numerals
Comparison of numerals in individual languages:[7]
| Classification | Language | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Western, Reshe | Reshe (Tsureshe) | tsúnnɛ̀ | rìsə̄ | tàtswā | nāʃẽ́ | tɔ̃̄ | tēnzɔ̄ | tànsã̄ | dálànzɔ̀ | tānāʃẽ́ | úpwà |
| Western, Basa | Bassa | hĩn | jèbí | tàtɔ | néʃì | táná | tʃìhin | tʃéndʒe | tɔndatɔ | tʃíndʒìʃì | uḿpwá |
| Western, Duka | C'lela | tʃĩ́ | ʔílɨ̀ | tɨ́ːt͡ʃù | náːsé | tã́ | t͡ʃíhĩ̀ | tã̀ʔílɨ̀ (5 + 2) | jɨ́ːɾù | dóːɾè | ʔóːpá |
| Western, Duka | ut-Ma'in | tʃɘ̄ːn | jɘ̄ːr | tɘ̄t | náːs | tán | ʃìʃìn | tàʔèr (5 + 2) ? | éːr | dʒʷɘ̄ːr | ɔ̄p |
| Western, Kambari | Tsishingini (Kambari) | íyyán | ìɾɛ̀ | tàʔàtsú | nə́ʃín | táːwún | tə̀ːlí | tʃìndɛ̀ɾɛ́ | kùnlə̀ | kùttʃí | kùppá |
| Western, Kamuku | Western Acipa (Cicipu) | tôː | jápù | tâːtù | nósì | tã̂u | tóɾíhĩ̀ | tíndàjà | kùrílːò | kùtítːí | ùkúpːà |
| Western, Kamuku | Cinda (Kamuku) | ĩ́jɑ́ | ⁿdə́ɰə̀ | tɑ́tɔ̀ | nə́ʃì | tɑ́ɑ̀ | tə́nə́hì | tə́ndə́ɰə̀ | tə́ntɑ́tɔ̀ | tə́ndə́ʃì | òpɑ́ |
| Western, Kamuku | Fungwa (Cifungwa) | ń / biké | jógò | tátù | nɔ́ʃì | tá | tʃíjĩ̀ | tĩ́dòlò | tĩ́dátù | tĩ́díʃì | húpɛ́ |
| Western, Kamuku | Hungworo (Hungwere) | ĩ́ːjə̃́ | ʔʲə̃̂d͡ʒə̀ | tât̼ɔ̀ | ùnə́sĩ̀ | sàtá | ūt̼únìhĩ̄ | ūtə́ndə̀ɾʲə̄ | ūtátàt̼ɔ̄ (2 x 4) ? | ūtə́nə̀sĩ̄ | īkópʲè |
| Western, Kamuku | Pongu (Pangu) | hĩ́ː | ɾêːnù | tâːtù | nə̃́ːʃĩ̀ | tá | tʃíníhì | tə̃́ndə́ɾə̀ | tə̃́ndáːtù | tṹndúʃì | úpwá |
| Eastern, Northern Jos, Jera | Anaguta (Iguta) | dínkā | rɛ̀ːpú | tààrū / tàːrū | nàːnzī | ʃùːbì | twàːsì | súnāːrí | ùrū | tɔ̀rbɔ̀ | būtúːrú |
| Eastern, Northern Jos, Kauru | Gure (Gbiri-Niraɡu) | pi:ʃem | piːbɑː | piːtær | piːnɑːz | piːʃiː | piːtæ ʃi | piːsundæriː | piːkunæs | piːturuːriː | kiʃiːæbɑː / nikpiːrinætʃeti |
| Eastern, Northern Jos, Kauru | Kurama (Akurmi) | nìdíi | tɨɽyá | tɨtáaɽɔ | tɨnáazɛ | úʃii | útasɛ | úsúndèɽì | úɽiɽé | ùtáɽá | níkúɽí |
References
- Blench, Roger (2012). "The Kainji languages of northwestern and central Nigeria" (PDF). Cambridge: Kay Williamson Educational Foundation.
- Blench, Roger M. 2018. Nominal affixing in the Kainji languages of northwestern and central Nigeria. In John R. Watters (ed.), East Benue-Congo: Nouns, pronouns, and verbs, 59–106. Berlin: Language Science Press. doi:10.5281/zenodo.1314323
- McGill, Stuart. 2012. The Kainji languages. Ms, School of Oriental and African Studies, London, 30 August 2012.
- Gerhardt, Ludwig. 1983. Beiträge zur Kenntnis der Sprachen des Nigerianischen Plateaus. Glückstadt: Verlag J. J. Augustin.
- Maddieson, Ian. 1972. The Benue-Congo Languages of Nigeria. Sheet 1 and 2: Plateau. Mimeographed paper. Ibadan.
- Blench, Roger (2019). An Atlas of Nigerian Languages (4th ed.). Cambridge: Kay Williamson Educational Foundation.
- Chan, Eugene (2019). "The Niger-Congo Language Phylum". Numeral Systems of the World's Languages.
- Blench, Roger. 2012. The Kainji languages of northwestern and central Nigeria.
- The Kainji languages (Roger Blench)
This article incorporates text available under the CC BY 3.0 license.
External links
- ComparaLex, database with Kainji word lists
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