Competing endogenous RNA

In molecular biology, competing endogenous RNAs (abbreviated ceRNAs) regulate other RNA transcripts by competing for shared microRNAs (miRNAs).[1] Models for ceRNA regulation describe how changes in the expression of one or multiple miRNA targets alter the number of unbound miRNAs and lead to observable changes in miRNA activity - i.e., the abundance of other miRNA targets. Models of ceRNA regulation differ greatly. Some describe the kinetics of target-miRNA-target interactions, where changes in the expression of one target species sequester one miRNA species and lead to changes in the dysregulation of the other target species. Others attempt to model more realistic cellular scenarios, where multiple RNA targets are affecting multiple miRNAs and where each target pair is co-regulated by multiple miRNA species.[2] Some models focus on mRNA 3' UTRs as targets, and others consider long non-coding RNA targets as well.[3][4][5] It's evident that our molecular-biochemical understanding of ceRNA regulation remains incomplete.

Hundreds of publications have described the influence of ceRNA regulation in normal and disease cells, but ceRNA regulation and its effects continue to be debated in scientific circles.

Summary

MicroRNAs are an abundant class of small, non-coding RNAs (~22nt long), which negatively regulate gene expression at the levels of messenger RNAs (mRNAs) stability and translation inhibition. The human genome contains over 1000 miRNAs, each one targeting hundreds of different genes. It is estimated that half of all genes of the genome are targets of miRNA, spanning a large layer of regulation on a post-transcriptional level.[6] The seed region, which comprises nucleotides 2-8 of the 5' portion of the miRNA, is particularly crucial for mRNA recognition and silencing.[7]

Recent studies have shown that the interaction of the miRNA seed region with mRNA is not unidirectional, but that the pool of mRNAs, transcribed pseudogenes, long noncoding RNAs (lncRNA),[3] circular RNA (circRNA) [8][5] compete for the same pool of miRNA thereby regulating miRNA activity.[9] These competitive endogenous RNAs (ceRNAs) act as molecular sponges for a microRNA through their miRNA binding sites (also referred to as miRNA response elements, MRE), thereby de-repressing all target genes of the respective miRNA family. Experimental evidence for such a ceRNA crosstalk has been initially shown for the tumor suppressor gene PTEN, which is regulated by the 3' untranslated region (3'UTR) of the pseudogene PTENP1 in a DICER-dependent manner.[10]

A new mechanism has recently been shown in which two closely spaced MREs (of the same or of different miRNA families) can cooperatively sequester miRNAs and thereby significantly boost a ceRNA effect.[11] For a cooperative effect to be considered two adjacent MREs, however, have to be of miRNA families that are expressed high enough to actively repress targets and to be less than 58 nucleotides apart.

The biological relevance of the ceRNA hypothesis has been actively debated. Most notably, it has been challenged by a group of researchers that performed a quantitative assessment of two miRNA families (highly and lowly expressed) and their binding sites in liver- and embryonic stem cells as described below.[11][12] However, these studies were focused on one miRNA per context, and their leading researchers later identified physiologically-relevant ceRNA regulation of another miRNA.[13]

Debate on physiological relevance

Two studies by Bosson et al. (2014) and Denzler et al. (2014) have empirically assessed the ceRNA hypothesis by quantifying the number MREs that must be added to detect ceRNA-mediated gene regulation.[12][14] Both studies agree that determining the number of transcriptomic miRNA-binding sites is crucial for evaluating the potential for ceRNA regulation and that miRNA binding sites are generally higher than the number of miRNA molecules. However, they differ in two aspects: (1) the experimental approaches used to determine the number of effective transcriptomic miRNA-binding sites and (2) the impact miRNA concentrations have on the number of binding sites that must be added to detect target gene derepression. The discrepancies between these studies lead to different conclusions with respect to the likelihood of observing ceRNA effects in natural settings, with Bosson et al. observing a ceRNA effect at physiologically plausible and Denzler et al. at unphysiological competitor levels.

In a later study, Denzler et al. (2016) has revisited the discrepancies between the two studies and has shown that while miRNA levels define the extent of repression, they have little effect on the number of binding sites that need to be added to observe ceRNA-mediated regulation.[11] Using the same cells and experimental systems as the two studies they suggested that the number of binding sites are very high and better reflects the estimates of the study by Denzler et al. (2014), and that low-affinity/background miRNA sites (such as 6-nt sites, offset 6-nt sites, non-canonical sites) significantly contribute to competition.[11] Due to this large number of background sites, their model suggests that prospects of observing an effect from a ceRNA are greatly reduced. Bosia et al. used single-cell assays to demonstrate substantial ceRNA crosstalk in instances where there is a balance between binding site counts, miRNAs, and target RNA expression profiles.[15]

Opponents of the ceRNA hypothesis pointed out that irrefutable proof of ceRNA-mediated gene regulation still remains to be shown since most studies either overexpress RNA transcripts at unphysiological levels [16][17] or lack seed mutation controls when up- or down-regulating potential ceRNA transcripts.[1][18] A mechanistically elegant study is especially important, as supporters argue that the quantity of work alone is in favor the ceRNA hypothesis. Two recent studies resolved this issue, demonstrating physiological effects and site-specific effects for ceRNA regulation.[2][19] Supporters of the ceRNA hypothesis criticized the studies by Denzler et al. for their focus on competition for a single miRNA. They argue that since ceRNA regulations are orchestrated through the cooperative effect of multiple miRNA families,[20] the study by Denzler et al. does not represent a typical ceRNA competitor and can therefore not be used to generalize. In addition, supporters are not surprised that our mechanistic understanding of ceRNA regulation remains incomplete. Instead, they point out that hundreds of genetics and molecular biology studies have found ceRNA regulation physiologically relevant.

Experimentally validated regulators and networks

High-throughput validation of ceRNA regulatory networks

Chiu et al. used LINCS data to support the regulation of hundreds of genes by ceRNA interactions in prostate and breast adenocarcinomas.[21]

PTEN ceRNA Network

PTEN is a critical tumor suppressor gene which is frequently altered in multiple human cancers and is a negative regulator of the oncogenic Phosphoinositide 3-kinase/Akt signaling pathway. Three studies have identified and successfully validated protein-coding transcripts as PTEN ceRNAs in prostate cancer,[9] glioblastoma[22] and melanoma.[23] PTEN ceRNAs CNOT6L, VAPA and ZEB2 have been shown to regulate PTEN expression, PI3K signaling, and cell proliferation in a 3'UTR- and microRNA-dependent manner.[9][23] Similarly, in glioblastoma, siRNA-mediated silencing of 13 predicted PTEN ceRNAs including Retinoblastoma protein (RB1), RUNX1 and VEGFA downregulated PTEN expression in a 3'UTR-dependent manner and increased tumor cell growth.[22] However, a replication effort of the initial prostate cancer study found that many of the results could not be replicated, and that many of the experimental interventions had no effect, or the opposite effect of what was originally reported.[24]

Additionally, PTEN's non protein-coding pseudogene, PTENP1, is able to affect PTEN expression, downstream PI3K signaling and cell proliferation by directly competing for PTEN-targeting microRNAs.[10]

Linc-MD1

Linc-MD1, a muscle-specific long non-coding RNA, activates muscle-specific gene expression by regulating expression of MAML1 and MEF2C via antagonizing miR-133 and miR-135.[3] Whether Linc-MD1 regulates miRNA activity by sequestering miRNA through a typical ceRNA mechanism or if the highly complementary miR-133 site regulates miRNA activity through target-directed degradation remains to be shown.

BRAFP1

BRAFP1, the BRAF (gene) pseudogene, has been implicated in the development of cancer, including B-cell lymphoma, by acting as a ceRNA for BRAF. Upregulation of BRAFP1 led to an overexpression of the BRAF oncogene.[18]

Hepatitis C virus (HCV)

Hepatitis C has shown been suggested to regulate miR-122 through be a ceRNA mechanism when overexpressed in Huh-7.5 cells.[25] It however still remains to be shown whether Hepatitis C can reach the high titers necessary in vivo in order to modulate gene expression through a ceRNA mechanism.

KRAS1P

Another pseudogene shown to have ceRNA activity is that of the proto-oncogene KRAS, KRAS1P, which increases KRAS transcript abundance and accelerates cell growth.[10]

CD44

The CD44 3'UTR has been shown to regulate expression of the CD44 protein and cell cycle regulation protein, CDC42, by antagonizing the function of three microRNAs - miR-216, miR-330 and miR-608.[16]

Versican

The versican 3'UTR has been shown to regulate expression of the matrix protein fibronectin via antagonizing miR-199a function.[17][26]

HSUR 1, 2

T cells transformed by the primate virus Herpesvirus saimiri (HVS) have been shown to express viral U-rich noncoding RNAs called HSURs. Several of these HSURs are able to bind to and compete for three host-cell microRNAs and thus regulate host-cell gene expression.[27]

ESR1

ESR1 has been shown to be regulated by multiple miRNAs that are highly expressed in ER-negative breast cancer, and its 3' UTR was shown to regulate and be regulated by 3' UTRs of CCND1, HIF1A and NCOA3.[20]

MYCN

MYCN amplification in neuroblastoma has been shown to deplete the abundance of its miRNA regulators, supporting MYCN's role as a master ceRNA regulator in neuroblastoma.[28]

HULC

Highly Up-regulated in liver cancer (HULC) is one of the most upregulated of all genes in hepatocellular carcinoma. CREB (cAMP response element binding protein) has been implicated in the upregulation of HULC.[29] HULC RNA inhibits miR-372 activity through a ceRNA function, leading to derepression of one of its target genes, PRKACB, which can then induce the phosphorylation and activation of CREB. Overall, HULC lncRNA is part of a self-amplifying autoregulatory loop in which it sponges miR-372 to activate CREB, and in turn upregulates its own expression levels.

ceRNA in bacteria

Bacteria do not have miRNA, and instead, ceRNAs in these organisms compete for small RNAs (sRNAs) or RNA-binding proteins (RBPs).[30] Similarly, competition by ceRNAs for RNA-binding proteins has also been reported in eukaryotic cells.[31]

See also

References
  1. Salmena L, Poliseno L, Tay Y, Kats L, Pandolfi PP (August 2011). "A ceRNA hypothesis: the Rosetta Stone of a hidden RNA language?". Cell. 146 (3): 353–8. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2011.07.014. PMC 3235919. PMID 21802130.
  2. Chiu HS, Martínez MR, Komissarova EV, Llobet-Navas D, Bansal M, Paull EO, Silva J, Yang X, Sumazin P, Califano A (May 2018). "The number of titrated microRNA species dictates ceRNA regulation". Nucleic Acids Research. 46 (9): 4354–4369. doi:10.1093/nar/gky286. PMC 5961349. PMID 29684207.
  3. Cesana M, Cacchiarelli D, Legnini I, Santini T, Sthandier O, Chinappi M, Tramontano A, Bozzoni I (October 2011). "A long noncoding RNA controls muscle differentiation by functioning as a competing endogenous RNA". Cell. 147 (2): 358–69. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2011.09.028. PMC 3234495. PMID 22000014.
  4. Chiu HS, Somvanshi S, Patel E, Chen TW, Singh VP, Zorman B, Patil SL, Pan Y, Chatterjee SS, Sood AK, Gunaratne PH, Sumazin P (April 2018). "Pan-Cancer Analysis of lncRNA Regulation Supports Their Targeting of Cancer Genes in Each Tumor Context". Cell Reports. 23 (1): 297–312.e12. doi:10.1016/j.celrep.2018.03.064. PMC 5906131. PMID 29617668.
  5. Memczak S, Jens M, Elefsinioti A, Torti F, Krueger J, Rybak A, Maier L, Mackowiak SD, Gregersen LH, Munschauer M, Loewer A, Ziebold U, Landthaler M, Kocks C, le Noble F, Rajewsky N (March 2013). "Circular RNAs are a large class of animal RNAs with regulatory potency". Nature. 495 (7441): 333–8. Bibcode:2013Natur.495..333M. doi:10.1038/nature11928. PMID 23446348. S2CID 4416605.
  6. Friedman RC, Farh KK, Burge CB, Bartel DP (January 2009). "Most mammalian mRNAs are conserved targets of microRNAs". Genome Research. 19 (1): 92–105. doi:10.1101/Gr.082701.108. PMC 2612969. PMID 18955434.
  7. Lewis BP, Burge CB, Bartel DP (January 2005). "Conserved seed pairing, often flanked by adenosines, indicates that thousands of human genes are microRNA targets". Cell. 120 (1): 15–20. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2004.12.035. PMID 15652477.
  8. Hansen TB, Jensen TI, Clausen BH, Bramsen JB, Finsen B, Damgaard CK, Kjems J (March 2013). "Natural RNA circles function as efficient microRNA sponges". Nature. 495 (7441): 384–8. Bibcode:2013Natur.495..384H. doi:10.1038/nature11993. PMID 23446346. S2CID 205233122.
  9. Tay Y, Kats L, Salmena L, Weiss D, Tan SM, Ala U, Karreth F, Poliseno L, Provero P, Di Cunto F, Lieberman J, Rigoutsos I, Pandolfi PP (October 2011). "Coding-independent regulation of the tumor suppressor PTEN by competing endogenous mRNAs". Cell. 147 (2): 344–57. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2011.09.029. PMC 3235920. PMID 22000013.
  10. Poliseno L, Salmena L, Zhang J, Carver B, Haveman WJ, Pandolfi PP (June 2010). "A coding-independent function of gene and pseudogene mRNAs regulates tumour biology". Nature. 465 (7301): 1033–8. Bibcode:2010Natur.465.1033P. doi:10.1038/nature09144. PMC 3206313. PMID 20577206.
  11. Denzler R, McGeary SE, Title AC, Agarwal V, Bartel DP, Stoffel M (November 2016). "Impact of MicroRNA Levels, Target-Site Complementarity, and Cooperativity on Competing Endogenous RNA-Regulated Gene Expression". Molecular Cell. 64 (3): 565–579. doi:10.1016/j.molcel.2016.09.027. PMC 5101187. PMID 27871486.
  12. Denzler R, Agarwal V, Stefano J, Bartel DP, Stoffel M (June 2014). "Assessing the ceRNA hypothesis with quantitative measurements of miRNA and target abundance". Molecular Cell. 54 (5): 766–76. doi:10.1016/j.molcel.2014.03.045. PMC 4267251. PMID 24793693.
  13. Kleaveland B, Shi CY, Stefano J, Bartel DP (June 2018). "A Network of Noncoding Regulatory RNAs Acts in the Mammalian Brain". Cell. 174 (2): 350–362.e17. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2018.05.022. PMC 6559361. PMID 29887379.
  14. Bosson AD, Zamudio JR, Sharp PA (November 2014). "Endogenous miRNA and target concentrations determine susceptibility to potential ceRNA competition". Molecular Cell. 56 (3): 347–59. doi:10.1016/j.molcel.2014.09.018. PMC 5048918. PMID 25449132.
  15. Bosia C, Sgrò F, Conti L, Baldassi C, Brusa D, Cavallo F, Cunto FD, Turco E, Pagnani A, Zecchina R (February 2017). "RNAs competing for microRNAs mutually influence their fluctuations in a highly non-linear microRNA-dependent manner in single cells". Genome Biology. 18 (1): 37. doi:10.1186/s13059-017-1162-x. PMC 5319025. PMID 28219439.
  16. Jeyapalan Z, Deng Z, Shatseva T, Fang L, He C, Yang BB (April 2011). "Expression of CD44 3'-untranslated region regulates endogenous microRNA functions in tumorigenesis and angiogenesis". Nucleic Acids Research. 39 (8): 3026–41. doi:10.1093/nar/gkq1003. PMC 3082902. PMID 21149267.
  17. Lee DY, Jeyapalan Z, Fang L, Yang J, Zhang Y, Yee AY, Li M, Du WW, Shatseva T, Yang BB (October 2010). Najbauer J (ed.). "Expression of versican 3'-untranslated region modulates endogenous microRNA functions". PLOS ONE. 5 (10): e13599. Bibcode:2010PLoSO...513599L. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0013599. PMC 2963607. PMID 21049042.
  18. Karreth FA, Reschke M, Ruocco A, Ng C, Chapuy B, Léopold V, et al. (April 2015). "The BRAF pseudogene functions as a competitive endogenous RNA and induces lymphoma in vivo". Cell. 161 (2): 319–32. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2015.02.043. PMC 6922011. PMID 25843629.
  19. Piwecka M, Glažar P, Hernandez-Miranda LR, Memczak S, Wolf SA, Rybak-Wolf A, et al. (September 2017). "Loss of a mammalian circular RNA locus causes miRNA deregulation and affects brain function". Science. 357 (6357): eaam8526. doi:10.1126/science.aam8526. PMID 28798046.
  20. Chiu HS, Llobet-Navas D, Yang X, Chung WJ, Ambesi-Impiombato A, Iyer A, Kim HR, Seviour EG, Luo Z, Sehgal V, Moss T, Lu Y, Ram P, Silva J, Mills GB, Califano A, Sumazin P (February 2015). "Cupid: simultaneous reconstruction of microRNA-target and ceRNA networks". Genome Research. 25 (2): 257–67. doi:10.1101/gr.178194.114. PMC 4315299. PMID 25378249.
  21. Chiu HS, Martínez MR, Bansal M, Subramanian A, Golub TR, Yang X, Sumazin P, Califano A (May 2017). "High-throughput validation of ceRNA regulatory networks". BMC Genomics. 18 (1): 418. doi:10.1186/s12864-017-3790-7. PMC 5450082. PMID 28558729.
  22. Sumazin P, Yang X, Chiu HS, Chung WJ, Iyer A, Llobet-Navas D, Rajbhandari P, Bansal M, Guarnieri P, Silva J, Califano A (October 2011). "An extensive microRNA-mediated network of RNA-RNA interactions regulates established oncogenic pathways in glioblastoma". Cell. 147 (2): 370–81. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2011.09.041. PMC 3214599. PMID 22000015.
  23. Karreth FA, Tay Y, Perna D, Ala U, Tan SM, Rust AG, DeNicola G, Webster KA, Weiss D, Perez-Mancera PA, Krauthammer M, Halaban R, Provero P, Adams DJ, Tuveson DA, Pandolfi PP (October 2011). "In vivo identification of tumor- suppressive PTEN ceRNAs in an oncogenic BRAF-induced mouse model of melanoma". Cell. 147 (2): 382–95. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2011.09.032. PMC 3236086. PMID 22000016.
  24. Wang H, Radomska HS, Phelps MA, Reproducibility Project: Cancer Biology (October 2020). "Replication Study: Coding-independent regulation of the tumor suppressor PTEN by competing endogenous mRNAs". eLife. 9 (2020, 9:e56651). doi:10.7554/eLife.56651. PMC 7572125. PMID 33073769.
  25. Luna JM, Scheel TK, Danino T, Shaw KS, Mele A, Fak JJ, Nishiuchi E, Takacs CN, Catanese MT, de Jong YP, Jacobson IM, Rice CM, Darnell RB (March 2015). "Hepatitis C virus RNA functionally sequesters miR-122". Cell. 160 (6): 1099–110. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2015.02.025. PMC 4386883. PMID 25768906.
  26. Lee DY, Shatseva T, Jeyapalan Z, Du WW, Deng Z, Yang BB (2009). "A 3'-untranslated region (3'UTR) induces organ adhesion by regulating miR-199a* functions". PLOS ONE. 4 (2): e4527. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0004527. PMC 2638016. PMID 19223980.
  27. Cazalla D, Yario T, Steitz JA, Steitz J (June 2010). "Down-regulation of a host microRNA by a Herpesvirus saimiri noncoding RNA". Science. 328 (5985): 1563–6. Bibcode:2010Sci...328.1563C. doi:10.1126/science.1187197. PMC 3075239. PMID 20558719.
  28. Powers JT, Tsanov KM, Pearson DS, Roels F, Spina CS, Ebright R, Seligson M, de Soysa Y, Cahan P, Theißen J, Tu HC, Han A, Kurek KC, LaPier GS, Osborne JK, Ross SJ, Cesana M, Collins JJ, Berthold F, Daley GQ (July 2016). "Multiple mechanisms disrupt the let-7 microRNA family in neuroblastoma". Nature. 535 (7611): 246–51. doi:10.1038/nature18632. PMC 4947006. PMID 27383785.
  29. Wang J, Liu X, Wu H, Ni P, Gu Z, Qiao Y, Chen N, Sun F, Fan Q (September 2010). "CREB up-regulates long non-coding RNA, HULC expression through interaction with microRNA-372 in liver cancer". Nucleic Acids Research. 38 (16): 5366–83. doi:10.1093/nar/gkq285. PMC 2938198. PMID 20423907.
  30. Bossi L, Figueroa-Bossi N (December 2016). "Competing endogenous RNAs: a target-centric view of small RNA regulation in bacteria". Nature Reviews. Microbiology. 14 (12): 775–784. doi:10.1038/nrmicro.2016.129. PMID 27640758. S2CID 205496765.
  31. Karreth FA, Tay Y, Pandolfi PP (April 2014). "Target competition: transcription factors enter the limelight". Genome Biology. 15 (4): 114. doi:10.1186/gb4174. PMC 4052382. PMID 25001290.
This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.