Chola conquest of Anuradhapura

Chola conquest of Anuradhapura
Date	992 AD–1017 AD
Location	Sri Lanka
Result	Chola Victory Kingdom of Anuradhapura destroyed by the Chola Dynasty[1]; Plundering of Anuradhapura and the island's treasures.[2];
Territorial; changes	Polonnaruwa made Chola administrative capital in Sri Lanka Rajarata annexed as a Chola province
Belligerents
Chola Dynasty	Anuradhapura Kingdom Pandyan Allies;
Commanders and leaders
(992–993 CE) Rajaraja Chola I (King) Rajendra Chola I(prince) Vallavaraiyan Vandiyadevan (1017 CE) Rajendra Chola I(king) Sanga varma chola (prince) (1042 CE) Sanga varma chola (Lanka chieftain)	(992–993 CE) Mahinda V (POW); (1017 CE) Kassapa VI; (1042 CE) Kassapa VI †; Disposed Pandyan Princes †
Units involved
Chola Navy; Chola Army	Anuradhapura Army; Pandyan Auxiliaries
Strength
95,000[3]	Unknown
Casualties and losses
Unknown	Many

The Chola conquest and occupation of Anuradhapura Kingdom was a military invasion of the Kingdom of Anuradhapura by the Chola Empire. It can be seen as an ensuing conflict between Chola and Sinhalese kings after the initial conflict between Chola and the Pandya-Sinhalese alliance during conquest of the Pandya Kingdom by Chola king Paranthka I.[4] After the defeat, Pandya king Rajasimha took his crown and the other regalia and sought refuge in Anuradhapura.[4] The Paranthka made several futile attempts to regain regalia, including invasion of Sri Lanka on a date between 947 and 949 CE during the reign of Sinhalese king Udaya IV (946–954 CE).[4] Therefore, one of the driving motives behind the invasions of Anuradhapura by the Cholas' was their desire to possess these royal treasures.[4] The conquest started with the invasion of the Anuradhapura Kingdom in 993 CE by Rajaraja I when he sent a large Chola army to conquer the kingdom and absorb it into the Chola Empire.[5] Most of the island was subsequently conquered by 1017 CE and incorporated as a province of the vast Chola empire during the reign of his son Rajendra Chola I.[6][7][8] The Chola occupation would be overthrown in 1070 CE through a campaign of Sinhalese Resistance led by Prince Kitti, a Sinhalese royal. The Cholas fought many subsequent wars and attempted to reconquer the Sinhalese kingdom as the Sinhalese were allies of their arch-enemies, the Pandyas. The period of Chola entrenchment in northern Sri Lanka lasted in total about three-quarters of a century, from roughly 993 CE (the date of Rajaraja's first invasion) to 1070 CE, when Vijayabahu I recaptured the north and expelled the Chola forces restoring Sinhalese sovereignty.[9]

History

Background

Military expeditions from South Indian forces into Anuradhapura had been brief ad hoc up until the mid-tenth century. These were designed to facilitate short-term gains with minimal involvement followed by a withdrawal to the mainland. However, with the ascension of more ambitious and aggressive imperial Chola kings, Rajaraja I (985–1014) and his son Rajendra I (1012–1044), a new strategy of ruthless plunder and destruction of major political and religious centers on the island occurred, followed by the establishment of semi-permanent and fortified encampments, from where wide-ranging raids could be carried out in other parts of the island.[9]

Fall of Anuradhapura

The Chola dynasty under Rajendra Chola I

The tirumagal inscription of Rajaraja I dated to 993 AD first mentions Anuradhapura among the king's conquests. Mahinda V (981–1017) distracted by a revolt of his own Indian mercenary troops fled to the south-eastern province of Rohana. Taking advantage of this internal strife Rajaraja I invaded Anuradhapura sometime in 993 AD and conquered the northern part of the country and incorporated it into his kingdom as a province named "Mummudi-sola-mandalam" after himself.[5] The Culavamsa says that the capital at Anuradhapura was "utterly destroyed in every way by the Chola army.[10] The capital of the conquered Rajarata was moved to Polonnaruwa which was then renamed "Jananathamangalam", a title of Rajaraja. The Chola official Tali Kumaran erected a Shiva temple called Rajarajeshvara ("Lord of Rajaraja") in the town of Mahatirtha (modern Mantota, Mannar), which was renamed Rajaraja-pura.[11] Comparing Rajaraja's campaign to the invasion of Lanka by the legendary hero Rama, the Thiruvalangadu Plates states:[12]

"Rama built with the aid of monkeys, a causeway across the sea, and then with great difficulties defeated the king of Lanka by means of sharp edged arrows. But Rama was excelled by this king whose powerful army crossed the ocean by ships and burnt up the king of Lanka."
— Thiruvalangadu Copper Plates[12]

A partial consolidation of Chola power in Rajarata had followed the initial season of plunder. With the intention to transform Chola encampments into more permanent military enclaves, Saivite temples were constructed in Polonnaruwa and in the emporium of Mahatirtha. Taxation was also instituted, especially on merchants and artisans by the Cholas.[13] In 1014 Rajaraja I died and was succeeded by his son Rajendra Chola I, perhaps the most aggressive king of his line. Chola raids were launched southward from Rajarata into Rohana. By his fifth year, Rajendra claimed to have completely conquered the Ceylon and incorporated it into the Chola Empire.[14] As per the Sinhalese chronicle Mahavamsa, the conquest of Anuradhapura was completed in the 36th year of the reign of the Sinhalese monarch Mahinda V, i.e. about 1017–18.[15] But the Cholas never really consolidated their control over southern Sri Lanka, which in the case lacked large and prosperous settlements to tempt long-term Chola occupation.[13] According to the Culavamsa and Karandai plates, Rajendra Chola led a large army into Rohana and captured Mahinda's crown, queen, daughter, a vast amount of wealth, and the king himself whom he took as a prisoner to India, where he eventually died in exile in 1029.[16][15]

Resistance

Vijayabahu I sent three armies to attack Polonnaruwa. One was sent along the western shore to Mahatittha and Polonnaruwa, another from the east across Magama, and the third and main force across Mahiyanga.

In 1029, Eleven years after the Chola conquest of Rohona, Prince Kassapa, son of Mahinda, hid in Rohana, where Chola forces vainly searched for him. Soon after the death of his father Kassapa assumed the monarchy as Kassapa VI (also known as Vikramabahu) and "ruled" in Rohana for several years (c. 1029–1040) while attempting to organize a campaign of liberation and unification. He became the king of Rohana after 11 years of Chola rule in Rohona. Taking advantage of uprisings in the Pandya kingdom and Chera kingdoms, Kassapa VI massacred the Chola garrisons in Rajarata and drove the 95,000-strong Chola army to Pulatthinagara. But he died before he could consolidate his power, and a series of ephemeral aspirants to the throne subsequently appeared and disappeared in Rohana without dislodging the Cholas from the north.[16] Kassapa VI's mysterious death in 1040, however, brought an end to the war. His successor Mahalana-Kitti (1040–1042) tried to lead an unsuccessful revolt against the Cholas

Vijayabahu I (1039–1110), descended from or at least claimed to be descended from the Sinhalese royal house. He had defeated his most powerful rivals in Rohana and was anxious to take on the Cholas, by the age of seventeen.[16] The crisis in the country left a scattering of turbulent chiefs and intractable rebels whose allegiance, if any, was at best opportunistic which proved a problem to both sides in the conflict, frustrating both the Sinhalese kings and the Cholas. Vijayabahu, from his base in Rohana, faced a similar difficulty; he had to contend with the hostility of local chiefs who regarded him as a greater threat to their independence than the Cholas were.

For that reason, the Cholas occasionally succeeded in recruiting nominal support from rebel chiefs in Rohana, as a result, Vijayabahu had difficulty consolidating a firm territorial base from which to launch a decisive campaign against the Cholas. On the other hand, the Cholas were unable to eliminate similar opposition to themselves in the north. Gradually the wider conflict developed into a prolonged, back-and-forth struggle of raids and counter-raids, with the forces of Vijayabahu advancing upon Polonnaruva and then falling back to fortresses in Dakkhinadesa and Rohana to withstand retaliatory Chola attacks and sieges.[16]

With time on the side of the insurgent forces, The Chola's determination began to gradually falter. Vijayabahu possessed strategic advantages, even without a unified "national" force behind him. A prolonged war of attrition was of greater benefit to the Sinhalese than to the Cholas. After the accession of Virarajendra Chola (1063–69) to the Chola throne, the Cholas were increasingly on the defensive, not only in Sri Lanka but also in peninsular India, where they were hard-pressed by the attacks of the Chalukyas from the Deccan.

Vijayabahu eventually launched a successful two-pronged attack upon Anuradhapura and Polonnaruva, when he could finally establish a firm base in southern Sri Lanka. Anuradhapura quickly fell and Polonnaruva was captured after a prolonged siege of the isolated Chola forces.[16] Virarajendra Chola was forced to dispatch an expedition from the mainland to recapture the settlements in the north and carry the attack back into Rohana, in order to stave off total defeat.

In the battles that ensued, two powerful Sinhalese chiefs, Ravideva and Cala, crossed over with their men from Vijayabahu's side to the Chola commander. One of Vijayabahu's Tamil commanders, Kurukulattaraiyan, a Tamil Karaiyar chieftain, fell in battle.[17] What had begun as a profitable incursion and occupation was now deteriorating into desperate attempts to retain a foothold in the north. After a further series of indecisive clashes, the occupation finally ended in the withdrawal of the Cholas.

End of occupation

In 1070, when Kulottunga I (1070–1122) came to the Chola throne, after a period of political crisis at the Chola court, he initially concentrated on consolidating his authority in India. His most pressing task was to defend the Chola territories against the inroads of the Western Chalukya Empire. All this meant that the defence of Sri Lanka was given a low priority.[17]

The conquest of the Sinhalese kingdom had been associated with his three immediate predecessors (Rajendra Chola I, Rajendra Chola II, and Virarajendra Chola, all sons of Rajaraja I), no longer seemed to be worthwhile. Kulottunga had less personal prestige involved in the conquest, so he simply terminated it with little attempt to recoup Chola losses.[18]

Vijayabahu attacked and captured Pulatthinagara and drove the Cholas out of the city. Kulottunga sent a large army that engaged Vijayabahu in a pitched battle near Anuradhapura. The Cholas initially succeeded in driving Vijayabahu to seek refuge in Vatagiri but Vijayabahu took Mahanagakula on the Walaweganga and conducted his resistance from there. Pulatthinagara and Anuradhapura fell to Vijayabahu and Mahatittha were soon occupied. Having liberated the whole of Sri Lanka from Chola rule, Vijayabahu crowned himself king of Polonnaruwa in 1076–77.

Legacy

The Chola conquest had one permanent result, the kingdom of Anuradhapura, which lasted for over a millennium, was destroyed by the Cholas. Polonnaruwa, a military outpost of the Sinhalese kingdom,[note 1] was renamed Jananathamangalam, after a title assumed by Rajaraja I, and become the new center of administration for the Cholas. This was because earlier Tamil invaders had only aimed at overlordship of Rajarata in the north, but the Cholas were bent on control of the whole island. When Sinhalese sovereignty was restored under Vijayabahu I, he crowned himself at Anuradhapura but continued to have his capital at Polonnaruwa for it being more central and made the task of controlling the turbulent province of Rohana much easier.[5]

Notes

as noted by its native name of Ballot Nuvara (the camp city)

References

Citations

Spencer 1976, p. 411
The Jungle Tide:“Collapse” in Early Mediaeval Sri Lanka STRICKLAND, KEIR ,MAGALIE (2011) The Jungle Tide: “Collapse” in Early Mediaeval Sri Lanka. Doctoral thesis, Durham University. P.331 http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/893/
Roy, Kaushik (6 October 2015). Military Manpower, Armies and Warfare in South Asia. ISBN 9781317321279.
Wijetunga, Wijetunga Mudalige Karunaratna (1962), "First Phase: Relations between the Sinhalese and the Cholas up to the time of Rajaraja I", The rise and decline of Chola power in Ceylon, pp. 75–107, doi:10.25501/SOAS.00029338
Sastri 2000, p. 172–173.
Chattopadhyaya 1994, p. 7–9.
Kulke, Kesavapany & Sakhuja 2009, p. 195–.
Gunawardena 2005, p. 71–.
Spencer 1976, p. 409.
Spencer 1976, p. 411.
Sastri 2000, p. 173.
Dehejia 1990, p. 51.
Spencer 1976, p. 416.
Spencer 1976, pp. 416–417: "Under Rajendra Chola 1, perhaps the most aggressive king of his line, Chola raids were launched southward from Rajarata to Rohana. By his fifth year, Rajendra claimed to have completely conquered Ceylon, a claim that has led some historians to assert that Rajendra" completed "the conquest Rajaraja had begun" "But the Cholas never really consolidated their control over southern Ceylon, which in any case lacked large and prosperous settlements to tempt long-term Chola occupation." "Kassapa assumed the title of VikkamabahuI and ruled" in Rohana for several years(c. I029-Io4I)."
Sastri 2000, p. 199–200.
Spencer 1976, p. 417.
Indrapala, K. (2005). The Evolution of an Ethnic Identity - The Tamils of Sri Lanka 300 B.C.E to 1200 C.E. ISBN 0-646-42546-3. p. 249
Spencer 1976, p. 418.

Bibliography

Codrington, H (1994). A short history of Ceylon. New Delhi, Madras, India: Asian Educational Services. ISBN 81-206-0946-8.
De Silva, K. M. (2014). A history of Sri Lanka ([Revised.] ed.). Colombo: Vijitha Yapa Publications. ISBN 978-955-8095-92-8.
Dehejia, Vidya (18 October 1990). Art of the Imperial Cholas. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-51524-5.
Kulke, Hermann; Kesavapany, K; Sakhuja, Vijay (2009). Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the Chola Naval Expeditions to Southeast Asia. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. pp. 195–. ISBN 978-981-230-937-2.
Chattopadhyaya, Haraprasad (1994). Ethnic Unrest in Modern Sri Lanka: An Account of Tamil-Sinhalese Race Relations. New Delhi: MD publications Pvt Limited.
Gunawardena, Charles A. (2005). Encyclopedia of Sri Lanka. Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd. pp. 71–. ISBN 978-1-932705-48-5.
Sastri, K. A (2000) [1935]. The CōĻas. Madras: University of Madras.
Spencer, George W. (May 1976). "The Politics of Plunder: The Cholas in Eleventh-Century Ceylon". The Journal of Asian Studies. 35 (3): 405–419. doi:10.2307/2053272. JSTOR 2053272. S2CID 154741845.

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[19] s noted by its native name of Ballot Nuvara (the camp city)

[1] Spencer 1976, p. 411

[2] The Jungle Tide:“Collapse” in Early Mediaeval Sri Lanka STRICKLAND, KEIR ,MAGALIE (2011) The Jungle Tide: “Collapse” in Early Mediaeval Sri Lanka. Doctoral thesis, Durham University. P.331 http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/893/

[3] Roy, Kaushik (6 October 2015). Military Manpower, Armies and Warfare in South Asia. ISBN 9781317321279.

[:0-4] Wijetunga, Wijetunga Mudalige Karunaratna (1962), "First Phase: Relations between the Sinhalese and the Cholas up to the time of Rajaraja I", The rise and decline of Chola power in Ceylon, pp. 75–107, doi:10.25501/SOAS.00029338

[FOOTNOTESastri2000172–173-5] Sastri 2000, p. 172–173.

[FOOTNOTEChattopadhyaya19947–9-6] Chattopadhyaya 1994, p. 7–9.

[FOOTNOTEKulkeKesavapanySakhuja2009195–-7] Kulke, Kesavapany & Sakhuja 2009, p. 195–.

[FOOTNOTEGunawardena200571–-8] Gunawardena 2005, p. 71–.

[FOOTNOTESpencer1976409-9] Spencer 1976, p. 409.

[FOOTNOTESpencer1976411-10] Spencer 1976, p. 411.

[FOOTNOTESastri2000173-11] Sastri 2000, p. 173.

[FOOTNOTEDehejia199051-12] Dehejia 1990, p. 51.

[FOOTNOTESpencer1976416-13] Spencer 1976, p. 416.

[FOOTNOTESpencer1976416–417-14] Spencer 1976, pp. 416–417: "Under Rajendra Chola 1, perhaps the most aggressive king of his line, Chola raids were launched southward from Rajarata to Rohana. By his fifth year, Rajendra claimed to have completely conquered Ceylon, a claim that has led some historians to assert that Rajendra" completed "the conquest Rajaraja had begun" "But the Cholas never really consolidated their control over southern Ceylon, which in any case lacked large and prosperous settlements to tempt long-term Chola occupation." "Kassapa assumed the title of VikkamabahuI and ruled" in Rohana for several years(c. I029-Io4I)."

[FOOTNOTESastri2000199–200-15] Sastri 2000, p. 199–200.

[FOOTNOTESpencer1976417-16] Spencer 1976, p. 417.

[Indrapala6-17] Indrapala, K. (2005). The Evolution of an Ethnic Identity - The Tamils of Sri Lanka 300 B.C.E to 1200 C.E. ISBN 0-646-42546-3. p. 249

[FOOTNOTESpencer1976418-18] Spencer 1976, p. 418.