Cow Tower, Norwich

Cow Tower is an artillery tower that was built in the city of Norwich, Norfolk, England, between 1398 and 1399.[2] Norwich was a prosperous city in the late 14th century, with a population of around 5,000 involved in key medieval industries and forming a centre for international trade.[3] Between 1297 and 1350 the city had erected a circuit of defensive stone walls and ditches, both to impress upon outsiders the status of Norwich as a great city, but also to defend against invasion or civil disorder.[4]

Fears grew about the threat of French raids across England from the 1380s onward.[5] The citizens of Norwich were particularly concerned about the potential of a French raid on the city, drawing parallels between the position of Norwich and the experience of Southampton, another trading city that had been devastated by a French attack in 1338.[6] This threat, combined with the recent events of the Peasant Revolt of 1381 when the rebels had looted the city, encouraged the local government to improve the city's defences.[7]

The interior of the tower, showing the various gunports

Gunpowder weapons had begun to be introduced into England in the early 14th century, initially being used as offensive siege weapons but rapidly being adapted for defensive purposes during the 1360s.[8][lower-alpha 1] Although they were expensive, by the 1380s their potential value in defending castles and city walls was well understood and specialised facilities had begun to be built.[10] Norwich had acquired gunpowder weapons and a team of gunners by 1355, and by 1385 had fifty gunpowder pieces for use along its city walls.[11] Typically, these would have been small guns called hand cannons, rather than the heavier pieces termed bombards.[12]

The tower was built on one of the approaches to Norwich in a bend in the River Wensum, in a meadow called Cowholme, from where it acquired its current name.[13][lower-alpha 2] When first built, however, it was initially called the Dungeon, and then the "tower in the Hospital meadows", as the surrounding land was part of the St Giles Hospital.[15] It was intended to function as a specialised artillery tower, housing gunpowder weaponry capable of suppressing attackers on the far side of the river.[16] The Wensum was quite narrow at this point, however, and the tower's defences would have been of relatively limited value if the enemy successfully crossed over.[17]

There are fragmentary historical references to an earlier tower in the area, responsible for collecting tolls and acting as a prison, but it is unclear if this was on the same site as the Cow Tower, or refers to a different tower in the area.[18] The Cow Tower was one of several fortifications along this stretch of the river, with the gatehouse of Bishop Bridge lying just to the south, followed by two boom towers that controlled access to the waterway a further 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) down-river, and with another tower positioned 300 metres (980 ft) up-river to the north.[19] Although the Cow Tower was not directly part of the city walls, a protective timber palisade linked the tower with the line of the city wall to the north-west, and ran south to meet Bishop Bridge.[20]

The city's accounts show the details of the payments for the construction of the tower between 1398 and 1399, including charges for 36,850 bricks, stone, sand, lime, a hoist and various equipment.[21] At least 170 cartloads of stone are mentioned, and the bricks may have been brought to the site along the river by boat, while some of the timber was brought from Great Yarmouth.[22] The total cost of the building from these records, including labour, came to around £36.[23][lower-alpha 3] The number of bricks used in the tower, however, was probably twice the listed number purchased, and the city may therefore already have stockpiled some bricks on the location before the build.[24]

Examples of English bombards and stone cannonballs from the early 15th century

Cow Tower formed part of the city defences during the 15th century, with the Crown occasionally issuing instructions that it should be repaired.[25] In 1450 St Giles Hospital formally transferred any rights they had to the tower and the immediately surrounding land to the city.[25] The population of Norwich grew significantly from 1500 onwards and the city continued to maintain the urban defences; like other towers and gatehouses belonging to the city, however, by this period the Cow Tower was probably leased out to a merchant or craftsman when not in military use.[26]

In 1549, Robert Kett led an uprising in Norfolk; marching on Norwich, his army camped on the north-east side of the river, overlooking Cow Tower.[27] Two rebel attacks were then made across the river into the Hospital meadows, in an attempt to take Bishop Bridge, which would have given them access to the city.[27] Kett had brought artillery, which he turned on the Cow Tower, damaging the latter's parapets.[28] The rebellion failed, and the tower does not seem to have required extensive repairs.[27]

Most of Norwich's city walls, and all of the gatehouses, were demolished in the late 18th and 19th century as the city industrialised, but the Cow Tower avoided destruction.[29] The tower was now owned by the Trustees of the Great Hospital, who carried out repairs to the structure in the late 19th century, and in 1904, the British Army considered repairing the tower for use as an ammunition depot.[30] The repairs in the 19th century had used modern concrete when patching the walls, and this, combined with erosion from the river, soon caused extensive damage: wide splits formed up and down the tower along its northern side.[31]

The Ministry of Works took the tower into its guardianship in 1953 to address the problems, and promptly undertook an extensive sequence of repairs that lasted until 1958.[32] No archaeological investigation was carried out during these works, however, and a full architectural survey of the building was only carried out between 1985 and 1986, by the Historic Buildings and Monuments Commission.[33] In the 21st century, Cow Tower is managed by English Heritage and Norwich City Council; the tower is now only a shell, however, as the floors and the roof have been lost. The tower is protected under UK law as a scheduled monument.[34]