Deforestation in Nigeria

Deforestation includes logging, which involves cutting down trees, processing them locally, and loading them into trucks. The latter is a silvicultural endeavor with outcomes comparable to those of deforestation. This process of logging involves removing trees from the forest, and sold for commercial gain. It entails extensive activities and contributes significantly to world deforestation.[69]

When companies in a country engage in commercial logging, deforestation happens. For instance, when industries provide the global market with wood varieties such as ebony, mahogany, teak, and meranti, they invariably engage in deforestation. There are two means of log transportation. These are water transportation and road transportation. Water transportation is used in swampy areas which will not permit smooth movement for logging equipment such as loader cranes, trucks or lorries. Conversely, road transportation is used in areas that support movement of the equipment on roads[70] However, in 1999, the Nigerian Government banned the cutting down of 26 species of Nigeria hardwood trees to forestall their extinction[70]

Many actors are involved in wood logging in Nigeria. The World Trade Organization (WTO), multilateral banks, which include the World Bank (WB), Inter American Development Bank (IDB), Asian Development Bank, and African Development Bank, international financial institutions (International Monetary Fund), transnational and national businesses, development and cooperation agencies, northern consulting firms, and national and local governments, are a few of them that act as promoters and facilitators. Victims of wood logging include indigenous and local populations, underdeveloped nations, and the entire world.

The rich-poor gap is expanding across and within countries in the current world, which is unbalanced with asymmetries galore. The northern industrialized nations that currently control the world have set up a global infrastructure. Despite having a wealth of natural resources, the poor countries in the south have historically suffered as a result of their delayed industrial development.[71]

The Bretton Woods Institutions (World Bank and the International Monetary Fund) oversee the international funds that Southern nations desperately need, and they put pressure on local governments to give credits with strict conditions that are typically used to settle the nations' foreign obligations. As governments accumulate debt, the environment is harmed more, and the population at large becomes more and more impoverished, creating a vicious cycle.

Typical "development" plans promoted by the multilateral institutions imply export-oriented exploitation of local natural resources. In the case of tropical countries, the commercial interests that run a “marketed” globalized world see the forest only in terms of wood, disregarding all the other dimensions (shelter, medicinal plants, food, fishing, hunting, spiritual values, biodiversity). So wood becomes a profitable business to be exploited.[72]

National governments are forced to support logging operations that entail the granting of concessions in forests that have been long inhabited by indigenous or other local peoples due to the vested

Achara Amamba

interests of the ruling class in the region, which works strongly with transnational corporations. The last users of products made from tropical timber are often well-off residents of the industrialized North's wealthier nations. They are at the end of the logging chain.

Although the entire selective logging procedure suggests significant harm and the loss of marketable trees, this is actually a rather modest side impact. Using heavy tracked or rubber-tyred machinery

that obliterates the vegetation and compacts the soil, the felled trees are moved from the forest to "log landings"—large cleared areas in the forest that suggest total deforestation—along "skid trails" and transported out of the forest on a network of tracks and roads.

Indeed, incidental damage" caused by the logging activity makes up the majority of the harm. As trees are cut down, numerous trees are crushed as they crash through the remaining stands. Debris breakdown may inhibit seedling growth, and climbing vines can find the branches to be the perfect support, further inhibiting tree regeneration. Biodiversity is seriously threatened due to the significant alterations that significant parts of the forest ecosystem are going through.[73]

Deforestation is a serious problem in Nigeria, but it is one that can be addressed. By taking steps to protect forests and encourage sustainable practices, Nigeria can help mitigate the negative consequences of deforestation and ensure the long-term health of its environment.[74]

Deforestation is fast growing in Enugu State due to human activities going on in the area. The activities include: fetching of firewood, building of houses, building of markets and lots more. Ecosystems are upset by deforestation, which results in soil erosion, a decline in biodiversity, altered climate, the emission of carbon dioxide, and population declines. It raises the risk of landslides and flooding and restricts access to clean water.[75]

The rapid growth in Nigeria's population has increased the demand for food. To meet this demand, large areas of forests are destroyed each year, either by bush burning or logging, in a bid to create farmland.[76] Farmers also practice shifting cultivation, which is dangerous to the soil and to tropical rainforests as a whole. Shifting cultivation is a farming practice in which farmers move from one land to the other after some years in search of more fertile land.[77] A land deteriorates after many years of farming, people are compelled to explore new forest borders, which results in more deforestation.

There was a review that looked at the origins and effects of the local farmers' and Fulani herdsmen's problems in Nigeria during the 1960s, which have resulted in property destruction, displacement, and the paralysis of livelihoods. Grazing practices was another primary culprit, which polarizes the populace and cause deforestation. Grazing is a type of agriculture that is contributing to deforestation in the environment. Stakeholders need to monitor these crises in order to guarantee meaningful progress and continuation. In order to put a stop to the ongoing crises, it was suggested that implementing good governance, justice, equity, and the rule of law that will ensure that things are done as planned.[78]

Small ruminant farming is the practice of raising animals such as sheep, goats, and other hoofed mammals for their meat, milk, and other products.[79][80] It is a common practice in many parts of the world, and it can be a sustainable way to produce food. However, small ruminant farming can also contribute to deforestation.[81] There are a few ways in which small ruminant farming can lead to deforestation.

• Clearing forests to create grazing land for livestock is a major cause of deforestation. In some cases, forests are cleared to provide land for large-scale commercial livestock operations. Sometimes, forests are cleared by small-scale farmers who need more land to graze their animals.
• Small ruminants can damage forests by overgrazing. When animals graze too heavily, they can remove the vegetation that holds the soil in place. This can lead to soil erosion, which can damage forests and other ecosystems.
• Small ruminant farming can contribute to deforestation indirectly. For example, the production of animal feed requires land, water, and other resources. This can lead to the clearing of forests to create agricultural land or to the overexploitation of water resources.

There are a number of ways to reduce the impact of small ruminant farming on deforestation.[82] One way is to practice sustainable grazing methods. This includes rotating grazing areas, allowing the vegetation to recover between grazing events, and using less destructive grazing methods such as strip grazing.

Another way to reduce the impact of small ruminant farming on deforestation is to improve the efficiency of animal feed production.[82] This can be done by using more sustainable feed sources, such as crop residues and byproducts, and by reducing waste.

It is important to raise awareness of the environmental impacts of small ruminant farming. This can help to encage farmers to adopt more sustainable practices.

Petroleum exploration, oil spillage, and exploitation in the southern part of Nigeria have affected the swamp forest ecosystem in the region. These oil exploration activities have also affected the mangrove forests in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. According to the Department of Petroleum Resources, "about 419 oil spills have occurred on land, leading to the loss of between 5 and 10 percent of the mangrove forest[83]". The unorganized nature of the Nigerian system in channeling the pipes and coordinating the environment has left many in the region jobless, with no place to farm and no forest reserve to depend on. It is expected that fuel will provide food for the people, but unfortunately, oil theft has created conflict between the indigenous and the government. Oil spills have also affected the quality of drinking water. This lack of access to fresh water is a threat to human health.[76]

In Nigeria's Niger Delta region, oil spills have resulted in deforestation, ecological degradation, and threats to ecosystem services and renewable natural resources. The spillage impacts agricultural practices and biodiversity in a wide range of land, swamp, and offshore ecosystems. The region's heterogeneous populace, comprising forty ethnic groups and 250 languages, is confronted with issues like persistent oil spills and misuse of crude oil, which negatively affects both the environment and their standard of living. The diversified populace of the region is deeply concerned about the environmental impact of the NDRN.

According to the World Meteorological Organization, Nigeria is a leading producer of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and has a large reserve of natural gas.[84] However, the high cost of cooking gas and kerosene has caused the majority of rural and semi-urban households to resort to using wood for cooking. Over 120 million Nigerians rely on firewood and charcoal for their cooking needs, according to the International Energy Agency.[85] Research by the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) estimates that wood used for cooking accounts for about half of the trees that are removed illegally from forests globally, with a majority coming from developing countries such as Nigeria.[76] Nigeria heavily relies on wood as a source of fuel for cooking and heating, especially in rural areas. The demand for fuelwood and charcoal leads to excessive tree cutting, contributing to deforestation. Enugu State is experiencing deforestation due to the demand for firewood.[86]

As a result of the high influx of people to urban areas, there has been a need for rapid development and the provision of necessary social amenities like roads, airports, railways, bridges, and schools in these parts of the country, which are now threats to the forests as trees and vegetation are cut down or burned to achieve these development plans.[76]

For instance, most first-generation and second-generation universities like the University of Calabar were in highly forested areas, but the need to establish these schools made way for the destruction of these areas.[87] It is noted that Nigeria is blessed with biological resources, but due to human activities, thee country is losing its nature.[87]

Corruption poses a significant challenge in Nigeria and plays a major role in facilitating illegal logging by both companies and forest officials.[88] These illegal logging activities contribute to deforestation, causing significant environmental and economic consequences. An area equivalent to the size of a football field is illegally cleared every two seconds.[89]

The illegal trade of timber and its products results in substantial economic losses and environmental damages. The increasing demand for wood products has made the forestry sector lucrative, thereby promoting the prevalence of illegal logging. This destructive practice poses the primary threat to the existing tree population. Corruption is also pervasive within government institutions, leading to the exploitation of forest resources for personal gain and power. Unfortunately, these actions prioritize short-term economic benefits without considering the long-term consequences.[90]

The lack of integrity within the judiciary system contributes to the continuation of illegal logging, further exacerbating the issue of deforestation. Nigeria has faced threats of human health and even the health of its forests as a result of bad governance. It is noticed that the leaders are careless about the welfare state of their citizens and do not care about the natural resources given to us for human advancement and development.[91]

Corrupt governments are often paid off by illegal logging companies to make them ignore their activities. Do not support corrupt politicians and systems. Reduction of corruption will go a long way towards reducing deforestation overall.

In many poorer countries, the lack of police presence and law enforcement means that illegal deforestation often goes unpunished and unnoticed for many years, even though it is destroying the country's economy and resource wealth.

For example, 70 percent of Indonesia's timber exports come from illegal logging. Besides leaving behind extensive damage to the Rainforest, the country is also losing around US$3.7 billion every year in lost revenue. Thus, illegal logging does more harm than good to the country.

The rapid growth of the population and the resulting demographic pressure have had a significant impact on deforestation in Nigeria. As the most populous country in Africa, Nigeria currently has a population of 162.5 million people. This demographic situation becomes a pressing issue when combined with high levels of poverty, as approximately 70 percent (105 million) of Nigerians live below the poverty line.[92][93]

The consequences of overpopulation are evident in the increased construction of residential and public areas. This extensive urbanization leads to the disturbance of soil, making it more vulnerable to erosion and flooding. The United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) has highlighted that Africans are experiencing deforestation at a rate twice that of the global average, underscoring the severity of the problem in Nigeria.[94]

The combination of population growth, poverty, and rapid urbanization exacerbates deforestation in Nigeria, with detrimental consequences for the environment and communities. Efforts to address these challenges require a comprehensive approach that considers sustainable development and environmental conservation.

It is commonly known that excessive grazing promotes the vegetation of derived Savannah to gradually evolve into Sudan Savannah, given that these animals eat tree saplings, especially during the dry season when there isn't enough grass to sustain them. Furthermore, due to these animals' consumption of older tree branches and tree seedlings, deforestation occurs.[95] Grazers, who rear cattle, cows, and other animals, contribute to this deforestation.

Although forest fires have been linked to naturally occurring phenomena like lightning and volcanoes, people are the primary cause of forest fires. Because it is moist for the majority of the year, the Rainforest is significantly more resistant to fire than the Savannah, however it is extremely susceptible to wildfires during the dry season. The majority of the trees, including their seedlings, are killed when the Rainforest is continuously burned, resulting in grasslands.

However, due to their extremely thick bark, the shorter Savannah trees can withstand fire. For forestry and agricultural operations, fire is a tool for site preparation. It is employed to lessen the amount of underbrush and tree debris. Herdsmen light fires in order to provide their animals with new growth. Hunters may also use fire to evict wild animals. The impact of fire can be highly disastrous since tropical Rainforests, which include a wide diversity of trees, require a long time to restore themselves.[96]

The following are ways to fight deforestation in Nigeria, including:

1. Adoption of alley cropping, planting of Timber trees, rehabilitation of mined areas with vegetation, and planting of trees by private sectors.[111][112] The government can plant trees in areas where forests have been cleared. This will help to restore the forest cover and the ecosystem services that forests provide.
2. Enforcement of laws and regulations by government, the practice of eco-forestry.[113][114]
3. Encouraging the use of stoves instead of firewood, harnessing the use of wind and solar as a source of energy.[115]
4. The implementation of laws has increasingly been employed as a means to regulate logging, particularly when carried out by large-scale timber companies. Nevertheless, the effectiveness of such legislation in addressing the challenges faced by rural communities will also hinge on the availability of viable alternative economic opportunities. In Ghana, for instance, local communities took the initiative to establish a specialized task force responsible for monitoring logging activities and their environmental impacts. This proactive measure aims to ensure compliance with regulations. Similarly, the development of a regional plan, such as the Central Africa Regional Action Plan (CARAP), involving countries like Cameroon, the Central Africa Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Sao Tome and Principe, and Zaire, represents a positive step forward. The objectives of this plan may include prohibiting the export of endangered tree species, implementing levies or revoking licenses of companies involved in logging endangered trees, conducting assessments of equipment and personnel in the wood-processing industry to improve efficiency and minimize waste, and supporting local communities and businesses in reforestation initiatives. However, the effectiveness of such a regional agency will rely on the availability of adequate funding, and one potential source could be a tax imposed on timber products, particularly exports, to generate funds to support these activities.[116]
5. Encouraging sustainable agricultural practices by encouraging farmers to use sustainable agricultural practices, such as crop rotation and terracing which can help to protect forests.
6. The government can crack down on illegal logging and ensure that timber is only harvested from sustainably managed forests.
7. By practicing the principles of reduce, reuse, and recycle, particularly when it comes to paper products, we can make a significant impact. Start by reducing your consumption of paper, and then reuse products until they are fully utilized or depleted. Finally, ensure that you recycle them correctly according to the guidelines provided in your local area. These simple daily habits can contribute to making a difference. To help you get started, here are some additional easy tips:
   • Opt for double-sided printing whenever you need to print documents.
   • Consider purchasing secondhand pencils and notebooks instead of buying brand-new ones.
   • Take advantage of digital note-taking methods to reduce paper usage.
   • Responsibly recycle materials in accordance with the guidelines specific to your locality.
   • Whenever possible, choose products made from recycled materials. Using recycled products not only reduces the amount of waste that ends up in landfills but also decreases the demand for wood products. The high demand for wood and paper products is a leading cause of deforestation. When making new purchases, look for products labeled as "made from recycled paper." These labels can be found on various everyday items such as books, bags, egg cartons, and toilet paper. By buying recycled products, you help minimize the need for tree destruction and contribute to reducing waste in overflowing landfills.[117]
   • Practicing responsible use of electronic devices is an additional simple and effective way to contribute to the prevention of deforestation. The mining of minerals for electronics, such as laptops, smartphones, and cars, is a significant driver of deforestation. By using your electronic devices responsibly, you can make a difference by opting to repair them instead of purchasing new ones when they break. Furthermore, it is crucial to ensure that these devices are recycled properly at the end of their lifecycle. By taking care of our electronic devices and prioritizing repairs over constant upgrades, we can reduce the demand for mineral mining. This is especially important as mineral extraction often takes place in ecologically valuable areas like the Amazon Rainforest and on Indigenous lands without the consent of the local communities. Avoiding these unethical and unsustainable practices can contribute to the preservation of forests and serve as a solution to deforestation.
8. Practice eco-forestry

Eco-forestry is a restorative method of forest management, which is not based on economic productivity. In this practice, certain trees are selectively harvested while causing minimal damage to the rest of the forest. The long-term aim of this method is to systematically fell mature trees, while leaving the forest ecosystem relatively unaffected.

These principles are optimum for forestry management:

• Support for organizations that fight deforestation

Numerous international and locally focused organizations strive to protect forests from deforestation and apply sustainable forestry practices. Some examples are:

• Greenpeace
• World Wildlife Fund
• Rainforest Action Network
• Rainforest Alliance
• Conservation International
• Amazon Watch
• Arbor Day Foundation

1.      Forest-based carbon sequestration has the potential to offer win-win opportunities for economic development, environmental protection, and climate change mitigation.

2.      On lands that can support forests naturally, carbon sequestration can be achieved through afforestation, forest management, and avoided deforestation.

3.      Nigeria recently launched a National REDD+ Strategy (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation) to curb deforestation and reduce forest-related emissions. This strategy will provide a framework and roadmap to tackle the country's deforestation problem, create connections between incentives for sustainable forest management and low emissions development pathways, and enhance citizens' rights.[118]

1.      Afforestation involves converting former agricultural and abandoned crop lands back into forests. In areas where forests are most productive, they can sequester up to 11 tonnes of CO2 per hectare.

2.      Sustainable management, planting, and afforestation can help to reduce carbon storage in forests.

3.      Biodiversity Conservation since forests are home to a diverse range of plant and animal species. By restoring and expanding forested areas, Nigeria can help protect its unique biodiversity, some of which may be endangered due to deforestation

4.      Local Climate and Water Regulation because forests play a role in regulating local climates and stabilizing water cycles. By increasing forest cover, Nigeria can help mitigate the impacts of extreme weather events, such as flooding and droughts.

By implementing these solutions, Nigeria can work towards mitigating deforestation, preserving its forests, and promoting sustainable development.

Deforestation is a significant issue in Nigeria, with the country having the highest deforestation rate in the world, estimated at 3.7% of its forest lost every year.[75]

1. Reversing Deforestation: Afforestation involves planting trees on land that was not previously forested. By increasing forest cover, Nigeria can counteract the loss of its existing forests and ecosystems due to deforestation.
2. Carbon Sequestration: Trees are excellent at absorbing carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere. Afforestation helps capture and store carbon, thereby reducing greenhouse gas emissions. This is vital in the fight against climate change.
3. Restoring Ecosystems: Afforestation not only adds trees but also helps restore entire ecosystems. This is crucial for maintaining biodiversity and providing habitat for wildlife that may have been impacted by deforestation.
4. Economic Opportunities: Sustainable afforestation projects can create jobs and support local economies. They offer opportunities for timber production, non-timber forest products, and ecotourism, contributing to rural development and income generation.
5. Soil and Water Conservation: Trees and forests play a role in preventing soil erosion and improving water quality. By planting trees, Nigeria can help preserve its soil fertility and regulate water resources.
6. Community Involvement: Engaging local communities in afforestation initiatives can lead to successful and sustainable projects. This ensures that the people directly affected by deforestation have a stake in its restoration.
7. Global Climate Commitments: By enhancing its afforestation and carbon sequestration efforts, Nigeria can fulfill its international climate commitments under agreements like the Paris Agreement. This can lead to financial support and carbon credit opportunities.
8. Combating Desertification: In regions prone to desertification, afforestation can serve as a barrier against the encroachment of deserts, protecting arable land and livelihoods.

To effectively harness the potential of afforestation and carbon sequestration techniques in Nigeria, several key actions are needed:

1. Policy Support: Implement and enforce policies that promote afforestation, reforestation, and sustainable forest management. This includes addressing the drivers of deforestation.
2. Capacity Building: Invest in building the technical and organizational capacity necessary for successful afforestation and carbon sequestration projects.
3. Monitoring and Evaluation: Develop robust monitoring and evaluation systems to assess the progress and impact of afforestation initiatives, including carbon sequestration.
4. Community Engagement: Involve local communities in planning and implementing afforestation projects to ensure their long-term success.
5. International Collaboration: Seek international partnerships, funding, and expertise to support afforestation and carbon sequestration efforts.

In conclusion, afforestation and carbon sequestration techniques offer promising solutions to combat deforestation in Nigeria. By addressing the drivers of deforestation, engaging local communities, and aligning with global climate goals, Nigeria can make substantial progress in preserving its forests and mitigating climate change.

Deforestation in Nigeria has given rise to numerous challenges with far-reaching environmental, social, economic, and health impacts, affecting both the environment and the people who rely on it. Some of the key challenges caused by deforestation in Nigeria include:

Biodiversity loss: Deforestation threatens the rich biodiversity of Nigeria, including various plant and animal species that depend on forest ecosystems for their survival. It can lead to the extinction of certain species and disrupt ecological balance.

Climate change: The loss of forests contributes to increased greenhouse gas emissions, exacerbating global climate change. In 2020, Nigeria lost 97.8 kilohectares of natural forest, which equated to 59.5 metric tons of CO2 emissions.[119]

Soil erosion and flooding: Deforestation reduces the ability of forests to absorb and retain water, leading to increased soil erosion and the risk of flooding during heavy rainfall.

Desertification: The continuous loss of forests in Nigeria has contributed to the encroachment of the desert, with the desert advancing at a speed of more than 1.6 kilometers annually.

Economic loss: Forests provide various economic benefits, such as timber, non-timber forest products, and ecotourism. Deforestation results in the loss of these resources and can negatively impact local communities and the national economy[6].

Loss of Ecosystem Services: Forests provide various ecosystem services such as clean water, air purification, and pollination of crops. Deforestation jeopardizes these services and can harm human well-being.

Disruption of Water Cycles: Forests play a key role in regulating local and regional water cycles. Their removal can lead to changes in rainfall patterns, reduced water quality, and an increased risk of flooding.

Rural Livelihoods: Many local communities in Nigeria depend on forests for their livelihoods, including gathering non-timber forest products and practicing agroforestry. Deforestation can lead to loss of income and food security for these communities.

Land Degradation: Deforestation contributes to land degradation, making it less suitable for agriculture. As the population grows, this can lead to food insecurity and increased pressure on natural resources.

Loss of Cultural Heritage: Indigenous and local communities often have deep cultural and spiritual connections to the forests. Deforestation threatens these cultural heritages.

Health Impacts: The smoke from forest clearance through slash-and-burn agriculture and other methods can lead to air pollution, respiratory issues, and other health problems for nearby communities.

Illegal Logging and Resource Exploitation: Deforestation often leads to illegal logging and resource exploitation, resulting in lost revenue for the government and environmental degradation.

Conflict: Competition for forest resources can lead to conflicts between different user groups, including local communities and commercial interests.

To address these challenges, the Nigerian government and stakeholders can focus on implementing sustainable forest management practices, promoting afforestation and reforestation initiatives, and strengthening law enforcement to combat illegal logging. Additionally, supporting alternative livelihoods for communities dependent on forests and raising awareness about the importance of forests and their conservation can contribute to mitigating the challenges caused by deforestation in Nigeria.

Afforestation and carbon sequestration techniques offer various benefits, including:

Prevention of soil erosion and degradation: Forests play a crucial role in maintaining soil stability and preventing erosion. The roots of trees help bind the soil together, reducing the risk of landslides and maintaining the fertility of the land.[120] Trees and forests have extensive root systems that help bind soil particles together. This stabilizes the soil, reducing erosion caused by wind and water. The canopy of trees slows down rainfall, preventing it from directly hitting the soil and causing erosion. This protective canopy also reduces the impact of heavy rain on the soil.

Regulating temperature: Forests provide shade and help regulate local temperatures through evapotranspiration, where plants release water vapor into the air. This process can cool the surrounding area and provide a more favorable microclimate. Forests can create microclimates with lower temperatures, which is especially important for the survival of many plant and animal species.[120]

Improving air quality: Trees absorb pollutants, such as carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen dioxide, and release oxygen through photosynthesis. This process helps improve air quality and reduce the negative health effects of air pollution.[120] Through photosynthesis, trees release oxygen into the atmosphere, contributing to better air quality for human health.

Mitigating climate change: Afforestation and carbon sequestration techniques help remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, reducing the concentration of greenhouse gases and mitigating climate change. Trees absorb carbon dioxide during photosynthesis and store it in their biomass and soil, making them effective carbon sinks.[120][121]

Biodiversity conservation: Forests are home to a wide range of plant and animal species, and afforestation efforts can help restore and preserve biodiversity. By creating new habitats and connecting fragmented ecosystems, afforestation contributes to the conservation of biodiversity.[120] Forests can serve as ecological corridors, allowing species to migrate and maintain genetic diversity, which is essential for their survival in changing environmental conditions.

Economic benefits: Afforestation can provide economic opportunities through the sustainable management of forest resources, such as timber production, non-timber forest products, and ecotourism. These activities can generate income and employment for local communities.[120]

Seedling planting: This is the most common method of artificial regeneration, where nursery-grown seedlings are planted in the desired area. The seedlings are typically grown from seeds collected from native trees and are transplanted to the site.[122] Seedling planting is suitable for areas where natural regeneration is not feasible or when specific tree species are desired.

Direct seeding: Direct seeding involves planting seeds directly into the ground, either by hand or through aerial distribution. This method is more flexible, faster, and less expensive than seedling planting, but it requires favorable site conditions and careful seed selection and preparation[4][5]. Direct seeding is suitable for large-scale afforestation projects or areas where seedling planting is not cost-effective.

Assisted natural growth regeneration (ANR): ANR is a technique that combines natural regeneration with some level of human intervention to enhance the success of the regeneration process. This method involves collecting seeds from native trees in nearby forests, storing them if necessary, and sowing them in the target area to facilitate natural regeneration[3]. ANR is suitable for areas with existing seed sources and favorable site conditions.

The choice of afforestation technique depends on various factors, including site conditions, management objectives, and the availability of resources. A combination of these techniques can be used to achieve the best results in restoring forest landscapes and reaping the benefits of afforestation and carbon sequestration.

Carbon sequestration techniques

Two notable carbon sequestration techniques are "carbon farming" and "bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS)."

1. Carbon Farming: Carbon farming, also known as regenerative agriculture or agroforestry, is an approach that enhances carbon sequestration in agricultural and forestry practices. It involves sustainable land management techniques that increase the amount of carbon stored in the soil and vegetation[123]
2. Bioenergy with Carbon Capture and Storage (BECCS): BECCS is a technology that combines bioenergy production with the capture and storage of CO2 emissions. It involves using bioenergy sources, such as biomass, and then capturing and storing the CO2 generated during the energy production process. The process involves two technologies: biomass conversion and carbon capture and storage. Biomass is converted into energy, and the carbon emissions from this process are captured and stored in geological formations or embedded in long-lasting products.[124]  Because the biomass draws carbon from the atmosphere as it grows, BECCS can be a negative emissions technology when implemented well.[124] BECCS can be used in various sectors, including power generation, industrial processes, and transportation.[125]  BECCS can be a cost-effective way to reduce carbon emissions, but it requires significant investment and policy support to scale up.[125][124]

Both carbon farming and BECCS are vital components of strategies to achieve carbon neutrality and combat climate change. Carbon farming focuses on enhancing carbon storage in terrestrial ecosystems, particularly in agriculture and forestry, while BECCS aims to address emissions from energy production by incorporating bioenergy and carbon capture technologies. Integrating these techniques with other climate mitigation efforts can help reduce the impacts of global warming and support a more sustainable and resilient future.

Government initiatives: The Nigerian government has recognized the importance of carbon storage in its climate plan and has been implementing policies to reduce deforestation and increase carbon sequestration.[126] These initiatives aim to create economic value in carbon-confident areas and promote sustainable development.

NGO collaborations: NGOs such as the International Finance Corporation (IFC) and the World Bank have been working with the Nigerian government to support carbon storage efforts.[126] For example, the collaboration with Cross River State focuses on sustainable forest management, agroforestry training, reforestation, enhancing carbon sequestration, and biodiversity conservation.[127]

Local funding for climate actions: Subnational governments, such as Cross River State, play a vital role in driving climate action and delivering sustainable economies.[127] However, there may be challenges in accessing quality data and monitoring the progress of projects due to limited budget allocations for climate actions and planning.[127]

Research and studies: Academic research and economic studies have been conducted to assess the costs and benefits of forestry-based carbon sequestration in Nigeria, providing valuable insights for policy development and implementation.

By leveraging the support of these institutions and implementing effective policies, Nigeria can continue to enhance its afforestation and carbon sequestration efforts, contributing to global climate change mitigation and sustainable development.

Afforestation and carbon sequestration initiatives offer a wide range of economic, social, and environmental advantages, making them essential components of sustainable development and climate change mitigation efforts. Here are the key benefits of these initiatives: Economic Advantages:

1. Job Creation: Afforestation projects create employment opportunities, from tree planting and forest management to the processing of forest products. This can stimulate rural economies and reduce unemployment.
2. Income Generation: Sustainable forest management and the production of timber, non-timber forest products, and eco-tourism can provide income for local communities and contribute to poverty reduction.
3. Carbon Trading and Credits: By sequestering carbon, afforestation initiatives can generate carbon credits that can be sold in international carbon markets, providing a source of revenue for governments and project developers.
4. Resource Availability: Afforestation can ensure a long-term supply of wood, which is essential for industries like construction and furniture, reducing the reliance on imports and supporting local manufacturing.
5. Research and Innovation: These initiatives stimulate research and innovation in forest management and carbon capture technologies, fostering economic growth in related sectors.

Social Advantages:[128]

1. Community Involvement: Local communities often play a central role in afforestation initiatives, benefiting from training, employment, and capacity building. This engagement strengthens community ties.
2. Improved Livelihoods: Afforestation can improve local livelihoods by providing access to forest resources, including food, medicine, and materials for traditional practices.
3. Education and Awareness: These initiatives can raise awareness about the importance of forests and conservation, leading to more environmentally conscious societies.
4. Conflict Resolution: Well-managed afforestation projects can help reduce conflicts related to land and resource use by providing clear guidelines and incentives for sustainable practices.
5. Cultural Preservation: Indigenous and local communities often have deep cultural and spiritual connections to forests. Afforestation projects can help preserve these cultural heritages.

Environmental Advantages:[129][130]

1. Carbon Sequestration: Afforestation is a potent method for capturing and storing carbon, mitigating climate change and reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
2. Biodiversity Conservation: Restored and newly planted forests create habitat for a wide range of plant and animal species, supporting biodiversity.
3. Soil and Water Conservation: Trees and forests play a critical role in preventing soil erosion and improving water quality, ensuring healthy soils and clean water resources.
4. Air Quality Improvement: Forests filter pollutants from the air, leading to improved air quality in both urban and rural areas.
5. Climate Resilience: Forests contribute to climate resilience by regulating local temperatures, stabilizing water cycles, and protecting against extreme weather events such as floods and droughts.
6. Ecosystem Services: Forests provide essential ecosystem services like pollination, water purification, and flood control, benefiting both human societies and nature.
7. Habitat Restoration: Afforestation efforts can restore degraded landscapes and recreate lost ecosystems, aiding in the recovery of fragile environments.