Duchy of Surabaya

The Portuguese writer Tomé Pires mentioned that a Muslim lord was in power in Surabaya in 1513 though likely a vassal of the Hindu–Buddhist Majapahit.[1] At that time, Surabaya was already a major trading port,[2] owing to its location on the River Brantas delta and on the trade route between Malacca and the Spice Islands via the Java Sea.[3] During the decline of Majapahit, the lord of Surabaya resisted the rise of the Demak Sultanate, and only submitted to its rule in 1530.[1][4] Surabaya became independent after the death of Sultan Trenggana of Demak in 1546.[5][6] There is a dearth of historical records about the duchy in the second half of the 16th century.[5] In 1589 Surabaya led other east Javanese principalities in opposing the Pajang Sultanate, Demak's successor state, in Japan (today's Mojokerto), thereby stopping Pajang's eastward expansion.[7] Javanese historians said that a holy man, a descendant of Sunan Giri, convinced the opposing sides to return without a battle.[8] Dutch historian H. J. de Graaf wrote that in the second half of 16th century, the court of Surabaya became a centre of culture and Islamic Old Javanese literature, as opposed to the "upstart" central Javanese courts such as the Pajang and Mataram Sultanates.[1]

In the early years of the 17th century, Surabaya, allied with Pasuruan, expanded its influence throughout eastern Java.[9] It became the most powerful state in east Java, rivalling the Mataram Sultanate in central Java.[10] By 1622 it was in control of Gresik and Sedayu in eastern Java.[11] It was also the overlord of Sukadana[11] and Banjarmasin[12] in southern Borneo. More doubtful reports said it might have also extended its influence to Pasuruan and Blambangan (both in the eastern salient of Java), the Brantas valley region, and Wirasaba.[11] Surabaya formed and led an alliance of eastern Javanese principalities, primarily in response to the growing power of Mataram.[12][13] Other than Surabaya and its subordinate areas, the alliance also included Tuban, Malang, Kediri, Lasem, all in eastern Java, as well as Madura off the northern coast.[14]

The Dutch East Indies Company (known by its Dutch acronym, VOC) established a trading post in Gresik, under Surabaya's control, in 1602.[15] Dutch writers wrote about Surabaya's expanding influence.[15] In 1620 Dutch writers described Surabaya as a rich and powerful state with a field army of 30,000 men.[11] The city measured 37 kilometres (23 mi) in circumference, surrounded by a canal and protected with cannon.[11]

With an economy oriented toward trade,[26] Surabaya became a major trading port by the early 16th century.[11] Its ships were seen throughout Nusantara, as far west as Malacca and as far east as the Spice Islands.[11][26] It owed its importance to its location on the international trade route between those two points.[27] In addition, its location on the delta of the Brantas river connected it with inland agricultural areas.[12] The upriver communities supplied it with rice, both as food for Surabayans and as a trading commodity for Surabayan merchants.[26] Surabaya supplied the inland communities with trade goods such as clothing, jewelry, and porcelain.[26] Most other port towns on the northeastern coast of Java, such as Demak and Tuban, were allied with Surabaya before they fell under Mataram control.[28] The VOC had a trading post in Gresik, a port town under Surabaya's control, from 1602 to 1615.[15] At this time, the VOC's territorial control in Java was limited to Batavia (today's Jakarta).

The rulers of Surabaya had the rank of adipati,[29] usually translated to English as a duke.[30] The rulers became Muslim from at least 1513, when Surabaya was still subordinate to the Hindu-Buddhist Majapahit.[1] The dukes of Surabaya claimed to be descendants of Sunan Ampel (1401–1481), one of the nine saints (wali songo) credited with the spread of Islam in Java.[9][1][15] However, de Graaf wrote that there was no evidence for this claim although he considered it likely that the ruling family were distantly related to Sunan Ampel.[1][15] The last duke of Surabaya was Jayalengkara (r. ?–1625), who at the fall of Surabaya in 1625 was already blind and aged.[31] His son, Pangeran Pekik, was forced to live in Mataram after Mataram's victory.[31] He later married Sultan Agung's sister, and according to de Graaf, "did much to civilize the Court" of Mataram.[31]