Ekādaśamukha

Drawing of relief of Ekādaśamukha in Kanheri Cave 41, Mumbai, Maharashtra

Although usually classified as an Esoteric or Tantric form of the bodhisattva, the eleven-headed (ekādaśamukha) type is thought to be one of the earliest iconographic depictions of Avalokiteśvara to develop, predating the emergence of Vajrayāna Buddhism.[2] Its exact origin is unclear,[3] though certain authors such as Lokesh Chandra have associated it with the eleven Rudras of Vedic and Hindu mythology.[4][5] It is known that certain aspects of the Hindu god Shiva (Rudra) and elements of Shaivism both influenced and were incorporated into Buddhism, playing a role in the development of Avalokiteśvara's cult.[4][6]

A relief carving of the eleven-headed Avalokiteśvara in Kanheri (Cave 41), dating from the late 5th to early 6th century, is both the earliest extant example of this iconographic type and the only surviving Ekādaśamukha image in India.[7][8] Artistic depictions of this form are more numerous in East Asia: it is apparently one of the more popular forms of Avalokiteśvara in Dunhuang, second only to his thousand-armed or Sahasrabhuja form (itself a derivative of the Ekādaśamukha type), judging by the number of paintings of the bodhisattva found there.[9] In Japan, Ekādaśamukha also historiclally enjoyed a high degree of popularity, with images of the bodhisattva being installed as the main focus of veneration (honzon) in many temples.

Statue of Ekādaśamukha (Shíyīmiàn Guānyīn) in Yinzhou, Ningbo, China

One interpretation of the eleven faces of Ekādaśamukha is that it represents both the ten stages (bhūmis) of the bodhisattva path and buddhahood itself.[10] Another interpretation meanwhile interprets the eleven heads as symbolizing the eleven kinds of ignorance (avidyā) that plague sentient beings and which the bodhisattva removes.[11]

Certain depictions where Ekādaśamukha is shown with a total of twelve heads rather than eleven (i.e. his main head is not counted among the eleven heads) are meanwhile taken to symbolize the twelve links (nidānas) of dependent origination.[2]

Buddhist lore offers various explanations as to how Avalokiteśvara obtained eleven heads. One story relates that Avalokiteśvara's head and arms once split into pieces when he discovered the extent of wickedness and suffering in the world and was overcome with grief as a result. The buddha Amitābha, seeing Avalokiteśvara's plight, restored him by giving him eleven heads and a thousand arms with which to aid sentient beings.[12] In another story, Avalokiteśvara is said to have assumed this eleven-headed form to subdue and convert a prideful ten-headed rakshasa demon.[13]

Vināyaka (Kangiten in Japanese)

Ekādaśamukha is closely associated with the elephant-headed deva Vināyaka, the Buddhist analogue to the Hindu deity Ganesha. Certain stories relate that Vināyaka was originally a malevolent demon king who ruled over a horde of obstructive demons called vināyakas. He was eventually tamed by Avalokiteśvara, who assumed the form of an elephant-headed female demoness and embraced him, thereby causing him to achieve great bliss and abandon his evil ways. These legends serve as the origin myth for the 'Dual-Bodied' image of Vināyaka, which shows two elephant-headed figures (interpreted as Vināyaka and his consort, the incarnation of the eleven-headed Avalokiteśvara) embracing each other.[14][15]

• Chandra, Lokesh (1988). The Thousand-armed Avalokiteśvara, Volume 1. Abhinav Publications. ISBN 9788170172475.
• Faure, Bernard (2015). Protectors and Predators: Gods of Medieval Japan, Volume 2. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-5772-1.
• Gokhale, Shobhana (1987). "Eleven-Headed Avalokiteśvara from Kanheri". Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute. 68 (1/4): 371–376. JSTOR 41693334.
• Haneda, Shukai (2017). あなたの願いを叶える 最強の守護神 聖天さま (Anata no negai o kanaeru saikyō no shugoshin: Shōden-sama) (in Japanese). Daihōrinkaku. ISBN 978-4-8046-1394-9.
• Lee, Kenneth D. (2009). "Kannon: The Goddess of Compassion in Japan". In Herman, Phyllis K.; Shimkhada, Deepak (eds.). The Constant and Changing Faces of the Goddess: Goddess Traditions of Asia. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. pp. 65–80. ISBN 9781443807029.
• Henmi, Baiei (1960). 観音像 (Kannon-zō) (in Japanese). Seishin Shobō.
• Neville, Tove E. (1999). Eleven-headed Avalokiteśvara: Chenresigs, Kuan-yin, Or Kannon Bodhisattva: Its Origin and Iconography. Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers. ISBN 9788121504577.
• Ōmori, Gijō (2010). 実修真言宗の密教と修行 (Jisshū Shingon-shū no mikkyō to shūgyō) (in Japanese). Gakken Publishing. ISBN 978-4-0540-4524-8.
• Sanford, James H. (1991). "Literary Aspects of Japan's Ganesha Cult". In Brown, Robert (ed.). Ganesh: Studies of an Asian God. Albany: State University of New York. ISBN 0-7914-0657-1.
• Sørensen, Henrik H. (2020). "Chapter 4: Donors and Esoteric Buddhism in Dunhuang during the Reign of the Guiyijun". In Meinert, Carmen; Sørensen, Henrik H. (eds.). Buddhism in Central Asia I: Patronage, Legitimation, Sacred Space, and Pilgrimage. Brill. pp. 250–284. JSTOR 10.1163/j.ctv2gjwt66.12.
• Williams, Paul (1989). Mahāyāna Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations. Psychology Press. ISBN 9780415025379.