Escaped plant

Escaped plants are cultivated plants, usually garden plants, that are not originally native to an area, and due to their dispersal strategies, have escaped from cultivation and have settled in the wild and bred there, whether intentionally or unintentionally. Escaped plants are purposefully introduced plants that have naturalized in the wild and can develop into invasive plants, the settlement of which is to be assessed as problematic.[2] Other commonly used terms include escaped garden plant, garden escapee, escaped ornamental or garden refugee.

Lantana camara can escape from gardens into nearby wildlands.[1]

Some plants are valued as ornamental plants since they are very adaptable and easy to grow, characteristics which allow them to escape cultivation and become weedy in various ecosystems with far-reaching ecological and economic consequences. They can also develop into invasive intruders, especially in fragile or unstable ecosystems. Occasionally, their spread can even be traced back to botanical gardens. Therefore, escaped plants are the subject of research in invasion biology. Some plants escaped from cultivation so long ago that they are currently considered roadside plants or wildflowers.[3]

Dispersal

Wild olives have escaped gardens mainly by birds dispersing the fruit.

All garden refugees belong to the so-called hemerochoric plants. This term is used across the board for plants that have been introduced directly or indirectly by humans. The term also includes the unintentionally introduced plants that were introduced through seed pollution (speirochoric) or through unintentional transport (agochoric).[4]

Plants escape from gardens in many ways, but one main cause of spread from the ornamental garden is by green waste dumping in bushland and road reserves and as well as by birds or other animals eating the fruits or seeds and dispersing them.[5] Others are accidental hitchhikers that escape on ships, vehicles, and equipment.[6] Garden escapees can be adventive, which means they can be established in an inappropriate area of origin site by human influence.[7]

Occasionally, seed contamination also introduces new plants that could reproduce for a short period of time. The proportion of adventitious species in open ruderal corridors at such locations can exceed 30% of the flora of these locations. Further, ornamental alien plants can easily escape their confined areas (such as gardens and greenhouses) and naturalize if the climate outside changes to their benefit.[8] In the US, there are over 5,000 escaped plants, many of which are escaped ornamentals.[9]

Ecological threats

Tradescantia fluminensis escapees infesting woodland area.

Many invasive neophytes in Australia and New Zealand were originally garden escapees. The Jerusalem thorn forms impenetrable thorny thickets in the Northern Territory which can be several kilometers in length and width. Two other plants introduced as ornamental garden plants, Asparagus asparagoides and Chrysanthemoides monilifera, now dominate the herbaceous layer in many eucalyptus forests and supplant perennials, grasses, orchids, and lilies.[10]

Neophytes that develop aggressively, which displace and repel large areas of native species in many humid and shady landscapes, permanently change the biotope pose in many parts of the world, and sometimes create an economic problem. For example, species of Opuntia (prickly pears) have been introduced from America to Australia, and have become wild, thus rendering territories unsuitable for breeding; the same goes for European gorse (Ulex europaeus) in New Zealand.[11]

Rhododendron species introduced as ornamental garden plants in the British Isles crowd out island vegetation.[12] The same can be seen in many acidic peatlands in the Atlantic and subatlantic climates. Robinia pseudoacacia was imported from America to Central Europe for its rapid growth, and it now threatens the scarce steppe and natural forest areas of the drylands. Examples in forests include Prunus serotina which was initially introduced to speed up the accumulation of humus.

In North America, Tamarisk trees, native to southern Europe and temperate parts of Asia, have proven to be problematic plants. In nutrient-poor heaths, but rich in grasses and bushes (fynbos) in the region Cape in South Africa, species of eucalyptus from Australia are growing strongly. As they are largely accustomed to poor soils, and in the Cape region they lack competitors for nutrients and parasites that could regulate their population, they are able to greatly modify the biotope. In Hawaii, the epiphytic fern Phlebodium aureum has spread widely, and is considered an invasive plant.[13]

Particularly unstable ecosystems, already unbalanced by attacks or possessing certain characteristics, can be massively damaged by neophytes because the final vegetation is already weakened. In the humid forests of Australia, neophytes first colonize along roads and paths and then enter the interior of the regions they surround.[14]

Thunbergia mysorensis, native to India, invaded the rainforests around the coastal city of Cairns in Queensland and even invades trees 40 m high. In Central Australia, the Eurasian species Tamarix aphylla grows along river banks, repelling native tree species, and wildlife that go together, lowers water levels and increases soil salinity. As in the United States, tamarisks have proven to be formidable bio-invaders. The fight against this species of trees, which has spread widely since, appears to be almost hopeless.[15][16]

Garden escapees can fall within the definition of, and may have a relation to, these botanical terminologies below:

Wild tulips survive, multiply and grow wild without human influence.
  • Agriophyte: Refers to plant species that have invaded natural or near-natural vegetation and can survive there without human intervention. Established in their new natural habitats, they remain part of natural vegetation even after human influence has ceased, and are independent of humans in their continued existence.[17][18] Examples in Central Europe are waterweed, Douglas fir or Japanese knotweed, and the sweet chestnuts introduced by the Romans in Germany. The group of ornamental plants and even the poppy (both archaeophytes) that normally grow in fields colonized pioneering sites in floodplains and is therefore now part of natural vegetation.[19]
  • Epecophyte: Species of recent appearance, usually numerous and constant in the country, but confined to artificial habitats, such as meadows and ruderal vegetation. They are dependent on humans for existence that their habitats require constant renewal.[20]
  • Ephemerophyte: Species that are only introduced inconsistently, that die briefly from culture or that would disappear again without constant replenishment of seeds. In other words, they can establish themselves temporarily, but they are not in a position to meet all the conditions relating to the territory. A cold winter, or an unusual drought, can lead to the death of these plants; most of the time, they are not able to fight against the local flora in extreme conditions.[21]
  • Hemerochory: Plants or their seeds may have been transported voluntarily (introduction) or involuntarily by humans in a territory which they could not have colonized by their own natural mechanisms of dissemination, or at least much more slowly. They are able to maintain themselves in this new vital space without voluntary help from man. Many Central European cultivated and ornamental plants are hemorochoric – insofar as they have escaped and subsist independently of cultivation.[22] These are the forms of hemerochory:
    • Agochoric: Plants that are spread through accidental transport with, among other things, ships, trains, and cars. On land, agochoric plants used to be common in harbors, at train stations, or along railway lines. Australia, like New Zealand, has taken stringent measures to prevent the spread by seed or human transport. Agricultural implements imported into Australia must be thoroughly cleaned. Air travelers from other continents are forced to thoroughly clean the soles of their shoes.[23]
    • Ethelochoric: Deliberate introduction by seedlings, seeds, or plants in a new habitat by humans. Many cultivated plants which currently play an important role in human nutrition have been deliberately disseminated by humans. Wheat, barley, lentil, broad bean and flax, for example.
    • Speirochoric: Unintentional introduction by seeds. As all seed samples also contain the seeds of the grasses of the field from which they were obtained, the trade-in seeds of useful plants has also allowed the spread of other species. Speirochoric plants are therefore sown on soil prepared by man and compete with useful plants. Wild chamomile, poppy, cornflower, corn buttercup are example of plants that were unintentionally scattered.

Example species

Examples of escaped plants and/or garden escapees include:

See also

Bibliography

  • Angelika Lüttig, Juliane Kasten (2003): Hagebutte & Co: Blüten, Früchte und Ausbreitung europäischer Pflanzen. Fauna, Nottuln. ISBN 3-93-598090-6.
  • Christian Stolz (2013): Archäologische Zeigerpflanzen: Fallbeispiele aus dem Taunus und dem nördlichen Schleswig-Holstein. Plants as indicators for archaeological find sites: Case studies from the Taunus Mts. and from the northern part of Schleswig-Holstein (Germany). Schriften des Arbeitskreises Landes- und Volkskunde 11.
  • Herrando-Moraira, S., Nualart, N., Herrando-Moraira, A. et al. Climatic niche characteristics of native and invasive Lilium lancifolium. Sci Rep 9, 14334 (2019). Climatic niche characteristics of native and invasive Lilium lancifolium

References

  1. Lantana (Lantana camara) by Weed Management Guide
  2. Definition of escaped plant by Dave's Garden
  3. Mulvaney M (2001) The effect of introduction pressure on the naturalisation of ornamental woody plants in south-eastern Australia. In 'Weed Risk Assessment'. (Eds RH Groves, FD Panetta, JG Virtue). (CSIRO Publishing: Collingwood)
  4. Loss and degradation of native plant and animal habitat by invasion of escaped garden plants, including aquatic plants – Introduction Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment
  5. Migratory birds disperse seeds long distances Science Daily, 22 March 2016
  6. Escaping Ornamentals: A Threat to Natural Area Biodiversity By Miriam Owsley, Outreach Assistant, Northwest Michigan Invasive Species Network. 23 November 2016.
  7. Wilhelm Lohmeyer, Herbert Sukopp: Agriophytes in the vegetation of Central Europe. First addendum. 2001 (Braunschweiger Geobotanische Arbeit 8), pp. 179–220
  8. Starfinger U, Kowarik I, Rode M, Schepker H. 2003. From desirable ornamental plant to pest to accepted addition to the flora? The perception of an alien plant species, Prunus serotina, through the centuries. Biol. Invas. 5:323–335
  9. Escaped Ornamentals Escaped Ornamentals: Is your garden harboring environmental pollutants? Washington State Noxious Weed Control Board
  10. Loss and degradation of native plant and animal habitat by the invasion of escaped garden plants, including aquatic plants – proposed key threatening process listing NSW Scientific Committee – preliminary determination by NSW Government
  11. Australia's weedy garden escapees by The Invasive Species Council
  12. Dehnen-Schmutz, Katharina; Perrings, Charles; Williamso, Mark (2004). "Controlling Rhododendron ponticum in the British Isles: an economic analysis". Journal of Environmental Management. 70 (4): 323–332. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2003.12.009. PMID 15016441.
  13. Kowarik I (2005) Urban ornamentals escaped from cultivation. In: Gressel J (ed) Crop Ferality and Volunteerism. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp. 97–121.
  14. Rejmanek M, Richardson DM, Higgins, SI, Pitcairn, PJ, Grotkopp E (2005) Ecology of invasive plants: state of the art. In 'Invasive Alien Species. A New Synthesis' (Eds. HA Mooney, RN Mack, JA McNeely, LE Neville, PJ Schei, JK Waage), pp104-161. (Island Press, Washington DC)
  15. van Klinken, Rieks; Campbell, Shane; Heard, Tim; McKenzie, John; March, Nathan (2009). "The Biology of Australian Weeds: 54. 'Parkinsonia aculeata' L". Plant Protection Quarterly. 24 (3): 100–117.
  16. Griffin, G.F.; Smith, D.M.S.; Morton, S.R.; Allan, G.E.; Masters, K.A.; Preece, N. (1989). "Status and implications of the invasion of tamarisk (Tamarix aphylla) on the Finke River, Northern Territory, Australia". Journal of Environmental Management. 29 (4): 297–315.
  17. Handbook of Plant Palaeoecology, Flora and Vegetation, p.95 By R. T. J. Cappers, R. Neef
  18. Plant Ecology, p.496 By Ernst-Detlef Schulze, Erwin Beck, Klaus Müller-Hohenstein
  19. Wilhelm Lohmeyer, Herbert Sukopp: Agriophytes in the vegetation of Central Europe. Landwirtschaftsverlag, Münster-Hiltrup 1992, ISBN 3-7843-2073-2
  20. Potentials and Limitations of Ecosystem Analysis, Extinction and Naturalization of Plant Species p.261, edited by Ernst-Detlef Schulze, Helmut Zwölfer
  21. Ingolf Kühn, Stefan Klotz: Floristic status and alien species. In: Series of publications for vegetation science. 38 (2002), pp. 47–56.
  22. Harshberger, John William: The vegetation of the New Jersey pine-barrens, an ecologic investigation, Philadelphia: Christopher Sower Company, 1869–1929
  23. Tim Low: Feral Future. The Untold Story of Australia's Exotic Invaders, p. 73
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