Feng Shan

Feng Shan or feng-shan (Chinese: 封禪), also referred to as the Feng and Shan sacrifices, was an official rite offered by the Son of Heaven (kings of Zhou and later emperors of China) to pay homage to heaven and earth. The sacrifices were usually offered at Mount Tai,[1] the highest peak in the area, and nearby Mount Liangfu. The emperor would pay homage to heaven (on the summit) and earth (at the foot of the mountain) in the Feng (Chinese: 封; pinyin: Fēng) and Shan (Chinese: 禪; pinyin: Shàn) sacrifices respectively.[2] Completing Feng Shan allowed the emperor to receive the mandate of heaven.[3] The term 'feng' can roughly be translated to mean "to seal", while the term 'shan' can roughly be translated to mean "to clear away".

Feng Shan sacrifice
Jade Emperor Peak, the summit of Mt. Tai
Organised byEmperor of China

It is considered among the most important rituals of religious Confucianism.[4]

According to the Records of the Grand Historian, Feng involved building altars out of soil at the peak of Mt. Tai and proclaiming the merits and legitimacy of the emperor to god of heaven. Shan involved clearing land at the foot of the mountain to show respect for the god of earth.[5][6]

It was seen as a point by which emperors could meditate on the relationship between heaven and earth.[7]

While historically considered limited to the Emperor, commoners have performed the ceremony at times without imperial permission[8] The general Huo Qubing did it alone[8]

It is considered a prerequisite that the empire is in a period of prosperity with a good emperor and auspicious signs to perform the ritual[9] Many sovereigns refused to perform the ritual citing themselves as unworthy of it.[4]

They are considered parallel to the Secular Games of the Roman Empire in their political role with both being highly infrequent celebrations.[10] Both had high religious significance and were influential in changing narratives of power.[10]

History

Worship at Mount Tai began in prehistoric times.[11]

The Yellow Emperor is said to have performed the ceremony before ascending to heaven as an immortal.[10]

It continued through the Zhou dynasty.[11] During the Warring States Period, Mount Tai was located on the border between Qi and Lu, and leaders from both nations would carry out sacrifices at the mountain. In 219 BC, Qin Shihuang carried out what would come to be considered the first Feng and Shan sacrifices in celebration of uniting China.[11] The second emperor to carry out the sacrifices was Emperor Wu of Han. Emperor Gaozong of Tang carried out the Feng and Shan sacrifices more times than any other emperor in Chinese history. Japan, India, the Persian court in exile, Goguryeo, Baekje, Silla, the Turks, Khotan, the Khmer, and the Umayyad Caliphate all had representatives attending the Feng and Shan sacrifices held by Emperor Gaozong of Tang in 666 at Mount Tai.[12] Wu Zetian carried out Feng and Shan sacrifices at Mount Song. The last emperor to carry out Feng and Shan sacrifices was Emperor Zhenzong of the Song dynasty.[13] Later, emperors in the Qing dynasty would perform similar rites at Mount Tai. There are only six verifiable accounts of performances in all of Chinese history.[14]

The last recorded traditional Feng Shan was done in 1790 by the Qianlong Emperor.[15]

In modern times a festival claiming continuity occurs every year.[7] It is done with a large modern light show which did not exist in the medieval implementation.[16][17][7]

See also

References
  1. Guangwei, He; Hualing, Tong; Wenzhen, Yang; Zhenguo, Chang; Zeru, Li; Ruicheng, Dong; Weijan, Gong, eds. (1999). Spectacular China. Translated by Wusun, Lin; Zhongping, Wu. Cologne: Könemann. p. 42. ISBN 9783829010771.
  2. Lewis, Mark Edward (18 March 1999). Writing and Authority in Early China. ISBN 9780791441145. Retrieved 31 January 2015.
  3. Jing, Wang (1992). The Story of Stone: Intertextuality, Ancient Chinese Stone Lore, and the Stone Symbolism in Dream of the Red Chamber, Water Margin, and The Journey to the West. Durham, North Carolina: Duke Press. pp. 66–69. ISBN 082231195X.
  4. Bokenkamp, Stephen (2002). "24. Record of the Feng and Shan Sacrifices". Religions of Asia in Practice. pp. 386–395. doi:10.1515/9780691188140-029. ISBN 9780691188140.
  5. "'Fengshan Sacrifices' at Mount Tai[1]- Taian". www.chinadaily.com.cn. Retrieved 2019-02-25.
  6. Daji, Lü (2014). Marxism and Religion. Religious Studies in Contemporary China Collection. BRILL. ISBN 978-9047428022.
  7. "'Fengshan Sacrifices' at Mount Tai[2]- Taian". www.chinadaily.com.cn. Retrieved 2023-02-12.
  8. Theobald, Ulrich. "fengshan 封禪 (http://www.chinaknowledge.de)". www.chinaknowledge.de. Retrieved 2023-02-12.
  9. "Mount Tai - Holy Land of Politic and Worship | ChinaFetching". ChinaFetching.com. Retrieved 2023-02-12.
  10. ROBINSON, REBECCA (2018). "Spectacular Power in the Early Han and Roman Empires". Journal of World History. 29 (3): 343–368. ISSN 1045-6007. JSTOR 26607626.
  11. "Mount Taishan". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved 2019-02-25.
  12. Skaff 2012, pp. 146-7.
  13. 中国文化科目认证指南. 华语教学出版社. Sinolingua. 2010. p. 63. ISBN 978-7-80200-985-1.
  14. Record of the Feng and Shan Sacrifices,” in Donald Lopez, ed., Religions of China in Practice (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996), 251-60
  15. 《泰山文化纪年》：1、乾隆十三年（1748年）二月二十八日，清高宗奉皇太后（孝圣宪皇后钮祜禄氏，高宗之母）东巡，驻跸泰安府。次日，祭岱岳庙，侍太后登岱顶，祀碧霞元君。2、乾隆十六年（1751年）四月十六日，清高宗与皇太后南巡回銮，幸泰安，祀岱岳庙。3、乾隆二十二年（1757年）四月十一日，清高宗南巡回銮，抵泰安，谒岱岳庙，登岱顶，礼碧霞祠。4、乾隆二十七年（1762年）四月十九日，清高宗南巡回銮，途经泰安，谒岱岳庙，次日登山祀碧霞祠。5、乾隆三十年（1765年）四月，清高宗奉皇太后南巡，回銮谒岱岳庙， 驻跸灵岩寺。6、乾隆三十六年（1771年）二月，清高宗为恭贺皇太后八十寿辰，奉太后东巡，二十四日至泰安府， 驻跸白鹤泉 （此地是年建成行宫）。次日高宗躬谒岱庙。7、乾隆四十一年（1776年）三月，为庆祝大小金川叛乱平定，清高宗“恭奉皇太后巡幸山左，登岱延禧”。三月十四日至泰安府，谒岱庙，驻跸白鹤泉行宫。十五日登岱顶，祀碧霞祠。8、乾隆四十五年（1780年）正月，清高宗南巡，过泰安府。二十六日，驻跸白鹤泉行宫，次日谒遥参亭、岱庙。9、乾隆四十九年（1784年）二月初六，清高宗与皇子顒琰（即后之清仁宗嘉庆皇帝）南巡江河至泰安，躬谒遥参亭，“诣岱庙行礼”。10、乾隆五十五年（1790年）二月，清高宗东巡。三月初四日至泰安府，谒岱庙，驻跸白鹤泉行宫。次日以八旬之龄与皇子顒琰登岱顶，祀碧霞祠。初七日躬诣岱庙。
  16. "Fengshan Sacrifices Performance - Mt Tai - Review of Mount Tai, Tai'an, China". Tripadvisor. Retrieved 2023-02-12.
  17. "Fengshan Ceremony - Best Show at the Foot of Mount Tai 2023". www.chinadiscovery.com. Retrieved 2023-02-12.
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