General Staff Headquarters

The department placed more emphasis on military organization than civil organization. Still, the jurisdiction of the Civil Affairs Department was divided into 13 local administrative districts, and its primary function was to collect military funds. In 1924, when Baek Gwang-woon, the Chairman of the Council, was assassinated, Choi Seok-soon, commander of the 2nd Company, concurrently served as the Chairman of the Army Advisory Office.[1]

From its establishment, the General Staff Headquarters actively attempted to enter the country. After arriving at the Yalu Riverside under the guidance of correspondents, the guerrillas changed into hanbok. After crossing the Yalu River to avoid Japanese surveillance, he headed to the home of a domestic correspondent. Afterward, the mission was performed according to the situation.[3]

The main domestic activity areas of the independent forces belonging to the Army Advisory Office were the areas bordering the Yalu River, including Wwon, Jaseong, Guseong, Ganggye, Changseong, and Huseong in North Pyongan Province. The activities of the Army Advisory Office were most active from mid-1924 to the end of 1925. A representative example of the anti-Japanese armed struggle waged by the General Staff Headquarters unit was the attack on Makoto Saito, the Governor-General of Korea, at Masitan on the banks of the Yalu River on May 19, 1924. They had received information that Makoto Saito was patrolling the border guard station along the Yalu River. Accordingly, a special force was formed with eight members of the 1st Platoon of the 2nd Company, and an ambush was set up in Masitan Valley, Wiwon County, North Pyongan Province. A salvo opened fire when Saito's security ship came within firing range. Due to the sudden attack, the border patrol boat carrying Saito fled.[3]

It was in 1925 that the central organization of the General Staff Headquarters was significantly reorganized. On February 27, 1925, General Staff Headquarters executives, led by Choi Seok-sun, the Chairman of the General Staff Headquarters, held a military meeting at Gomaryeong (古馬嶺). This news became known to the Japanese police through spies. Japanese police raided Gomaryeong, where the meeting was being held. In March 1925, executives from five companies met at Gomaryeong (古馬嶺) in Gajaehyeon to establish an operational plan for the domestic invasion. Japan spied on this and mobilized police and military forces to launch a surprise attack. The army was able to resist this and preserve its basic capabilities, but Choi Seok-soon, 39 members, including company commander Jeon Chang-hee (田昌禧), were killed and tortured. Hong Ju and the others were arrested and suffered a great blow.[2] At this time, 42 people, including the Chairman of the General Staff Headquarters Choi Seok-sun, died in the country. General Staff Headquarters members who suffered significant damage in Gomaryeong reorganized their organization and sought ways for a new career path.[3]

As a result, in April 1925, the name was changed to Dokpanbu (督瓣府) or Jindododokbu (鎭東都督府). The basic line of the General Staff Headquarters was centered on the anti-Japanese armed struggle, as seen in the central organization. However, to make up for the damage suffered in Gomaryeong and maintain the organization, they had to focus on civil affairs activities for the Korean community. In May 1925, a special envoy was dispatched from the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea. After discussion, it was decided to change the names of Dokpanbu and Jindongdodokbu back to Army Advisory Office. On June 26, 1925, the central organization was revised. They announced an amendment stating that there would be a Chairman of the Central Council, with four military and four civil affairs councillors under him. On August 8 of the same year, the executive team was announced with Yoon Seong-Hwa [尹聖佐, = Yun Se-yong (尹世茸)] as the Chairman of the Central Council.[3]

In July 1926, with the Chinese National Government's Northern Expedition, a movement for a single national party developed within China, and around Ahn Chang-ho's visit to Manchuria in January 1927, three branches were unified as part of the movement for a single national party in Manchuria as well. It was promoted. However, differences of opinion and division arose over the direction and content of that integration. A three-part integrated conference was held under the auspices of the Jeongui Prefecture in September 1928. Still, the conference was discontinued in November as differences of opinion could not be resolved.[4]

The General Staff Headquarters had a strong tradition of prioritizing military activities, so there were cases where they pressured Koreans. Some Koreans who protested against this told Chinese officials about the conditions at the General Staff Headquarters. There were cases where people expressed their sympathy or formed separate organizations and protested by refusing to pay the dues. After the mid-1920s, the Korean community in Manchuria was divided and ruled by the Jeongui Prefecture, General Staff Headquarters, and Shinmin Prefecture. However, the power of the General Staff Headquarters began to decline in late 1925. After 1926, the domestic activities of the General Staff Headquarters gradually decreased. This is because, from the late 1920s, the General Staff Headquarters, together with the Shinmin Prefecture and the Jeongui Prefecture, focused on the issue of internal solidarity while seeking a unification movement for the independent army. In June 1925, the ‘Mitsuya Agreement (三矢協約)’ was signed between the Japanese Government-General of Korea and the warlord of the Fengtian clique. As a result, the oppression of independent forces operating in Manchuria intensified.

Beginning around 1928, divisions arose within the organization over the direction of the independence movement. In 1929, some members of the General Staff Headquarters moved to the National People's Prefecture, and those led by Kim Seung-hak created the Innovation Council. The power of General Staff Headquarters was greatly weakened. In this process, an organizational split occurred within the General Staff Headquarters, and the majority faction of the General Staff Headquarters declared the dissolution of the General Staff Headquarters and formed the Innovation Council (革新議會) in December 1928 by joining forces with the secessionist faction of the Jeongui Prefecture and the military government faction of the Shinmin Prefecture. The remaining faction of the General Staff Headquarters, which did not participate in the Innovation Council, linked up with the majority faction of the Jeonguibu and the civilian government faction of the Shinmin Prefecture, led by Sim Yong-jun, and joined the National People's Prefecture in April 1929.[4]

The main activity of the General Staff Headquarters was the anti-Japanese armed struggle. Each company was concentrated on the banks of the Yalu River, where entry into the country was easy. Chosan (楚山), Wiwon (渭原), Manpojin (滿浦鎭), and Gajeonhyeon in North Pyongan Province were the main military bases and stages of General Staff Headquarters's activities. In the early days of the establishment of the Army Advisory Office, three of the five companies were deployed to Gajae-hyeon, and the remaining units were located in Hwanin-hyeon and Tonghwa-hyeon. In particular, they went into the country to raise military funds, punish pro-Japanese factions, and carried out activities to attack Japan's ruling institutions. In 1925, they attacked police stations near Chosan Mountain along the Yalu River and fought with Japanese border guards. Correspondents were dispatched to Korean villages between dispersed regions and stayed there for a certain period. The purpose was to understand the surrounding situation, report instructions from headquarters, sympathies of the Japanese military, etc., and communicate with them. When a company or platoon entered their village, the correspondents guided them to where the next correspondent was. The guidance of correspondents was the main way for the guerrillas to reach their destination.[3]

The General Staff Headquarters also conducted civil affairs activities to protect and govern the Korean community within its jurisdiction. First, they focused their attention on educating second-generation Koreans by establishing schools. Because the area under the jurisdiction of the Army Advisory Office was mainly mountainous, it was realistically impossible to build large-scale facilities. Therefore, small educational facilities were established throughout Korean villages to provide elementary education. In addition, negotiations with the Chinese authorities reached an agreement to create a Korean department in Chinese middle schools. In addition, Dongheung Hospital was established in the forest in Jijahyeon County, Dongwha Hospital and Hwajeon Hospital were established in Hwajeon County, and Tongdong Hospital was established in Daecheonan, Tonghwa County. As of January 1926, the General Staff Headquarters operated four hospitals and three schools. Attention was also paid to the employment activities of Koreans. He established a rice mill and, based on profits, carried out activities to support Koreans' farming funds.[3] While armed activities slowed down following the Battle of Gomaryeong, the General Staff Headquarters worked for the stability of Korean society.[2] In 1927, when Kim Seung-hak became the Chairman of the Central Council, the 13 local administrative committees were reduced to 7 administrative districts. Three administrative members were assigned to each district.[3]

Members of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea Army's General Staff Headquarters

The military organization of the General Staff Headquarters was organized into five companies and one independent platoon. At the beginning of its establishment, the military strength was more than 500 men, maintaining more than 600 men until July 1928. Each Company comprised about 140 troops, and its platoons were distributed and deployed to various surrounding areas. A mandatory military service system was implemented within the jurisdiction to supplement troops, and the Veterans Corps provided military training to rural youth. The General Staff Headquarters mainly carried out domestic advance operations. It attacked police substations and township offices in the Pyeongan Province region.[4] Under the central organization of the General Staff Headquarters, each Company was deployed as a military organization. Each General Staff Headquarters company was mainly stationed near the Yalu River, which was advantageous for entering the country. Only the units of the 5th Company were located in Tonghwa County, away from the Yalu River.[3][2]

Under the head of the Baek family, a special organization called the Communication Company was formed. The main tasks of the Communications company were twofold. First, it was communications work. It was responsible for communication between each Company and its affiliated units and as guidance for independent forces entering the country. Next was to collect duties from Koreans in the jurisdiction for the activities of the independence army.[3]

In March 1925, the entire unit was divided into three units and moved toward Chosan, North Pyongan Province, attacking and destroying the Chu-dong police station, the Hadan-dong police station, and the Yeohae police station in Byeokdong-gun, then retreating and engaging with the border guards, showing their bravery.[1]

The central organization of the General Staff Headquarters was characterized by being organized around units. The Civil Affairs Department was the only department in charge of administrative matters. The Civil Affairs Department was responsible for overseeing local organizations. In October 1924, an incident occurred in which Chae Chan (= Baek Gwang-un), the Chairman of the Cham Council and the commander of the 1st Company, died after being attacked by Tonguibu members. At this time, the organization was reorganized. The jurisdiction of Chamuibu is centered around Jianhyeon (輯安縣), including Gwanjeon (寬甸), Hwanin (桓仁), Tonghwa (通化), Fusong (撫松), Jangbaek (長白), Ando (安圖), and Yuhwa (柳). In this area, there were more than 15,000 residents.[3]

The General Staff Headquarters had a central organization and local organizations to protect and manage Koreans. In the early days of its establishment, the General Staff Headquarters divided jurisdictions and established 13 local administrative committees. Afterward, each administrative committee measured the population and appointed a hundred heads of households for every thousand households. Beneath the hundred heads were the ten heads of the household. An administrative district was established where many Koreans lived, and about 50 security guards were deployed. They were responsible for maintaining public order and protecting the property of Koreans.[3]

From August 1925, the committee system was adopted, departments were established, the affairs of the departments were divided to take charge of autonomous administration, and more than 50 protection officers were trained to take charge of public security in each region. Residents paid a mandatory fee of 10 won every year. With the funds raised this way, the government was equipped with weapons and implemented an administration for industrial promotion and education.[4]