HMS Gloucester (1654)

The St. James's Day Battle (25 July 1666), with the Dutch fleet (bottom left) and English fleet in a line of battle formation. Details about each of the English ships present—including that of the "Glocester"—are listed.[8]

During the 1650s, the fleets of the European powers generally fought in a melee style that involved fighting between individual ships, but it became clear to the English that the tactic of firing guns from the broadsides of many ships was more effective, and the government worked to convert the fleet to fight in this way.[9] A large ship was vulnerable to raking fire, a volley of cannonballs directly in front or behind it, which could cause considerable damage, and the best protection—and the best form of attack—was having ships sailing together closely and in a straight line.[10] This tactic, known as a line of battle, was used by warships such as the Gloucester, which were large and powerful enough to take their place in the line. Such ships had multiple gun batteries on at least two decks.[3][11] Around 100 ships could be formed into a line of battle.[9]

The Dutch had mobilised quickly at the beginning of the First Dutch War of 1652 and had double the number of ships possessed by the English, but they were smaller and were unsuitable for attacking the English line of battle. Early in the war the English government, recognising the usefulness of large ships, had ordered 30 frigates, to be built at the end of 1652. An early example of a large frigate, the Speaker, launched in April 1650,[3] provided the prototype for a class of ships. The Speaker-class,[2] launched between 1650 and 1654, were about 750 tons and carried between 48 and 56 cannon. Their introduction caused the Dutch Navy, which was still reliant on the use of armed merchant ships, to become largely obsolete.[12] Speaker-class ships had much in common with the old Great Ships planned in 1618, being of a similar size, with two decks and a large number of guns.[3] The class set the pattern for all the two-deck ships built up to the 19th century.[9]

The first English map of Jamaica, made by John Ogilby in 1671. Gloucester was one of the warships in the invasion fleet of the island in 1655.

Gloucester was commissioned in 1654, with Benjamin Blake as captain.[16] Under Blake, Gloucester was with Penn's fleet, an expedition that left England for the Caribbean on Christmas Day 1654. Known as the Western Design, the expedition—consisting of 17 men-of-war, 20 transports with 3000 troops and horses, and other small craft—was intended by Cromwell to end Spanish dominance in the West Indies.[21][22] The expedition was split into two divisions: the first was led to Robert Blake (Benjamin Blakes's older brother) in his flagship HMS St. George; the second, was under Penn on HMS Swiftsure. Another Robert Blake in the expedition was the nephew of Benjamin Blake, who sailed with his uncle on the Gloucester.[23]

Little was achieved. On 14 April 1655, English troops landed in Hispaniola and marched inland. After three days they retreated, exhausted by disease and a lack of supplies. A second attack failed, and eventually the troops had to be re-embarked. Penn then moved on to Jamaica and invaded the island, which surrendered on 17 May.[21][22]

Penn was succeeded by William Goodsonn. His authority was challenged by Blake, his vice-admiral, who wanted to search for prizes, and attack the Caribbean Spanish settlements. Blake, who returned home to England after Goodsonn forced him to resign,[24][note 2] was succeeded as captain of the Gloucester by Richard Newberry.[16] In August 1655 the squadron returned to England, but the Gloucester and 14 other vessels remained out on Jamaica Station.[21]

In November 1658, after a Dutch fleet commanded by Jacob van Wassenaer Obdam defeated the Swedes in the Battle of the Sound, and lifted the blockade of Copenhagen,[25] the Commonwealth Protector Richard Cromwell ordered a fleet to be sent to the Sound to protect English interests. Gloucester, captained by William Whitehorne, and with 260 men and 60 guns, was one of 20 ships sent to conduct operations in the Sound, under the command of Goodsonn.[26][16][note 3] The English government sent an expedition as a political gesture to dissuade the Dutch from sending a second fleet to the Baltic.[25]

The expedition left the Thames on 18 November 1658. Goodsonn's flagship Swiftsure attempted to join the fleet, but was forced back to port by strong winds. On 3 December the fleet left England for the Skaw, which many were prevented from rounding when they encountered continuous winds.[28] On 15 December, having accomplished little, Goodsonn decided to return home. That night, a gale damaged nearly every ship, including Goodsonn's flagship. None was lost, and from 22 December until the end of the year, they anchored on the English coast between Great Yarmouth and Harwich.[28]

Renamed in 1660 as HMS Gloucester, the ship participated in the Battle of Lowestoft, forming part of the Red squadron (Van division).[16] The Battle of Lowestoft took place on 3 June 1665,[29] east of the Outer Gabbard and 40 miles (64 km) southeast of the English port of Lowestoft.[29][30] The English under James Stuart, Duke of York, fought a Dutch fleet led by Obdam, in what was the first fleet action of the Second Anglo-Dutch War,[29] The Dutch had 107 ships, of which 81 were warships and 11 substantial East Indiaman. The English fleet of 100 ships, which included 64 men-of-war and 24 merchant ships, was greatly superior in firepower.[30]

At one point during the battle, the firing became heavy enough to be heard in the Hague.[30] The principal event was the sudden explosion of the Dutch flagship Eendracht, which killed Obdam.[29] The Dutch fleet disintegrated and attempted to escape in different directions.[30] By the end of the battle, the English had captured or sunk 17 Dutch ships;[31] a number that would have been larger had not the ensuing pursuit been prematurely called off.[30]

Abraham Storck (c. 1670), The 'Royal Prince' and other Vessels at the Four Days Battle, 1–4 June 1666, Royal Museums Greenwich

On 5 May 1666, Gloucester, now captained by Robert Clark,[note 4] saw action against the Dutch off the island of Texel,[16] having been stationed there in April with a small squadron to observe the Dutch fleet. A day after his arrival, Clark intercepted a Dutch flotilla of twelve ships en route from the Baltic to Amsterdam, and captured seven of the ships.[21][33] The approach of the enemy's fleet obliged him to leave his station a few days later.[21][33]

Having met with the Duke of Albemarle at the Gunfleet on 24 May, Gloucester participated in the Four Days' Battle (1–4 June 1666). The battle was the longest in British naval history, and has been called the greatest battle of the Age of Sail.[34][35] Gloucester formed part of the White squadron, Centre division. Clark “bore as distinguished a part in the action... as the size of the ship he commanded would allow”.[33] The English lost an opportunity to defeat the Dutch after the king decided to divide the fleet, sending Prince Rupert away down the English Channel with 20 ships towards Ireland, a decision that was reversed once the size of the Dutch threat became clearer.[34][36] Once the English fleet had manoeuvred east of the Kentish Knock on 1 June, so as to reach the Dutch fleet,[35] battle commenced off North Foreland.[34] On 2 June, the English attacked the Dutch, but the Duke of Albemarle was forced onto the defensive. The situation was saved the following day when Prince Rupert's ships reappeared.[34] On the last day, squadrons on both sides broke through enemy lines amid heavy fighting, but eventually the battered English fleet was forced to admit defeat and retreat.[34][37] The English lost 10 ships, most notably the Prince Royal.[35] Gloucester was totally disabled in the action, with 18 men from the ship killed and 27 men wounded. He was soon afterwards promoted to the command of the second rate HMS Triumph.[16][33]

Gloucester and the other English ships were quickly repaired.[38] In early July 1666, the Dutch appeared at the end of the Thames and settled there intending to start a blockade—on 22 July the English sailed out, and the two fleets met three days later.[39] Under her captain Richard May, Gloucester formed part of Blue squadron (Centre division).[16] The St James's Day Battle took place over 25 and 26 July. The weaker and disorganised Dutch fleet, whose line of ships was deliberately made into a snake-like pattern, was heavily defeated.[40]

A 17th century Dutch drawing depicting Sir Robert Holme's attack on the Smyrna fleet on 12 March 1672, Royal Museums Greenwich

Under John Holmes, Gloucester participated in the attack on the Smyrna fleet in the North Sea in March 1672.[16] The ship was part a fleet of 20 ships lying off the Isle of Wight, and commanded by his brother Sir Robert Holmes. On 12 March the English sighted the Dutch Smyrna convoy, which consisted of six men-of-war and 66 merchantmen, 24 of which were fully armed. During the fight, five merchantmen were captured, and Gloucester disabled and captured the Klein Hollandia, which later foundered off Eastbourne. The remaining Dutch ships, though damaged, escaped. Holmes, who was wounded during the action, was knighted for his services.[41]

An English squadron under the command of William Coleman, captain of the Gloucester since 16 April,.[16] narrowly escaped capture early in May 1672. The squadron was on its way to join the Duke of Albemarle, when it was spotted, and 30 Dutch ships, commanded by Willem Joseph van Ghent, were suddenly sent in pursuit. Coleman's squadron succeeded in reaching the dockyard at Sheerness relatively unscathed.[42][43][44]

Gloucester was in the Blue Squadron (Van division) during the Battle of Solebay on 28 May 1672.[16] The battle has been described as one of the fiercest engagements in British naval history.[45]

Willem van de Velde the Younger (1675), The Burning of the Royal James at the Battle of Solebay, 7 June 1672, Het Scheepvaartmuseum

The English and French fleets convened off Portsmouth on 5 May.[46] By 18 May, a confrontation between the combined French and English fleets (with a total of 6,018 guns), and the Dutch fleet (4,484 guns), seemed imminent.[47] During a delay of several days, the Dutch attempted unsuccessfully to lure the allies out to sea and towards the shallow waters of the Dutch coast. The allies' fleet instead made for the Suffolk coastal town of Southwold to obtain provisions and impress men from the town—nearby Sole Bay had the ability to provide ships with a safe haven,[48] and the English were sure that the westerly winds would prevent any sudden attack. It was several days before the Dutch located the allied fleet, but by 27 May they were able to report their position.[43]

When the Dutch fleet was spotted approaching the English coast—achieving the surprise that its commander Michiel de Ruyter had wished for—the sailors ashore were forced to rush back onto their ships.[49] The English and French fleets were roughly in formation, the Blue Squadron commanded by Edward Montagu, 1st Earl of Sandwich to the north, the Duke of York with the Red Squadron in the centre, and the French fleet forming the White Squadron to the south. The French mistakenly sailed south and away from the English squadrons, so two separate battles took place for most of the day.[46]

During the battle, the Duke of York's flagship Prince was targeted by the Dutch, and was damaged enough for him to be forced firstly onto St. Michael, and then to London. The fighting continued throughout the afternoon, with ships locked in combat with each other.[50] The battle produced no clear victory for either side. There was heavy loss of life, with the English losses being the greatest. The Earl of Sandwich's Blue Squadron admirals Sir John Kempthorne and Sir Joseph Jordan lost contact with him after his ship the Royal James was surrounded, and he was killed when the Dutch destroyed the ship.[46][51]

Gloucester was in Red squadron (Centre division) during the Battles of Schooneveld off the coast of the Netherlands in June 1673.[16] On 4 June, de Ruijter's Dutch fleet were sighted at anchor in Schooneveld by a combined Anglo-French fleet led by Prince Rupert. The battle commenced on 7 June. No ships were captured on either side, but once more the loss of life was heavy. On 14 June the Dutch ships emerged from port, and the second battle of the Schooneveld was fought. The Dutch eventually withdrew, although they had come off best, with neither side losing any ships.[52]

Gloucester took part in the Battle of Texel on 11 August 1673, after which she was sent at the end of the year to the Mediterranean.[16][53] Texel was the last battle of the Third Anglo-Dutch War. An Allied force, consisting of the English and French fleets, met the Dutch fleet. The Allies' intention was to destroy the Dutch at sea as a precursor to a seaborne invasion of Holland.[54] The fleets, which met off the island of Texel, consisted of 86 ships under the command of Prince Rupert, and 60 Dutch ships, commanded by de Ruyter.[55][56][57]

After de Ruyter succeeded in separating the French from the main fleet, the French withdrew, and played no further major part in the action.[57] The two fleets were in parallel lines on the same tack, and de Ruyter concentrated on the English centre—and achieved almost equal odds. There was sharp action in the morning, broken off when each side steered to rejoin their rear squadrons. Tromp and Spragge faced one another in what amounted to a personal duel in the rear.[58] No large ships were lost, but many were seriously damaged, and 3,000 men were killed.[54][57][59]

James, Duke of York (undated), National Trust

Gloucester was a valuable asset for the Royal Navy. From 1678–1680 she was comprehensively and expensively refitted at Portsmouth, a shortage of funds and materials having repeatedly delayed the work.[60][note 5]

In April 1682, Gloucester was due to be deployed, along with five other ships, to Tangier via Ireland, when Sir John Berry was appointed to command the ship, and was assigned to transport the Duke of York (the future King James II of England) and his party to Edinburgh.[60][61]

James's intention was to sail from Sheerness to Leith.[62] He intended to settle his affairs as Lord High Commissioner to the Parliament of Scotland, and collect his pregnant wife Mary of Modena (along with his daughter Anne from his previous marriage), before returning to London and taking up residence at his brother Charles's court. His plan would enable Mary to give birth in England, and so produce an English future heir to the throne.[63][64]

Amongst the courtiers who boarded the Gloucester were John Churchill (the future Duke of Marlborough), the Master-General of the Ordnance George Legge, James Dick (the Lord Provost of Edinburgh), and the Lord President of Scotland, James Graham, Marquess of Montrose.[65][note 6] No document listing those aboard the Gloucester itself has survived, adding to confusion about which of James's advisers were aboard.[66]

Gloucester, together with Ruby, Happy Return, Lark, Dartmouth and Pearl, and the royal yachts Mary, Katherine, Charlotte and Kitchen,[67][note 7] convened at Margate Road on 3 May.[62][66] The fleet left the Kent coast the following day, after having taken several hours to carry passengers and baggage across from the shore to the ships. A large crowd, along with the king and members of the royal court, were present to watch its departure of the fleet.[62][66]

Monamy Swaine, The Wreck of the Gloucester off Yarmouth, 6 May 1682, Royal Museums Greenwich

Bad weather forced the Gloucester to moor up during the first night. As a signal for the fleet to drop anchor, she fired a gun, but three ships, misinterpreting the signal, sailed out to sea and never re-joined the fleet.[62]

On the second evening, a dispute arose between the Duke and several officers—including Gloucester’s pilot, James Ayres—about the correct course to take.[13][62] Ayres was an experienced navigator who was well aware of the dangers posed by sandbanks in the waters surrounding the eastern coast of England. Wishing to avoid them, he advocated that the fleet sail close to the coast. The master of the Gloucester, Benjamin Holmes, advised avoiding the banks by using a deep-sea route. The Duke settled the matter when he decided upon a middle course.[68]

On the night of 5/6 May 1682, Gloucester was affected by strong winds blowing from the east.[69] At approximately 5.30 am the ship struck the Leman and Ower sandbank, about 45 kilometres (28 mi) off Great Yarmouth. Once it was realised she was aground, with the sandbank hidden in the dark, Gloucester fired a gun as a warning of the danger to the other ships. The ship bounced along the sandbank, which was in shallow water at low tide. The force of the ship against the sand broke off the rudder, and water rushed into the ship through a hole in the keel.[16][62][70] Less than an hour after she had run aground, the Gloucester sank.[67]

Partly through Berry's efforts and determination to stay with his ship until the end, the Duke was saved.[61] The ship's boats were lowered, enabling the Duke and some of his courtiers and advisors to reach the safety of the accompanying ships, which had already sent their boats to assist the stricken vessel.[13] James hesitated to leave the ship—he was convinced she would not be lost—finally abandoning the Gloucester once it was realised she could not be saved.[67]

His Royal Highness being gone into the Mary Yatcht, ordered all the Yatchts to Anchor, and to send off their Boats, as did likewise the Happy Return (the other three Frigats having lost Company) in the mean time the Glocester still beat on the Sand, her Head being cast aboat to the SW and by W, and the Water encreasing as high as the Gun Deck. However, the lifting of the Sea forced her off of the Sand, and she went into 15 fathom Water before we could let go our Anchor, which proved the loss of many poor Mens Lives. We Anchored and brought her Head up almost to Windward, we stil working with the Pumps and Bailing, but to no purpose; the Water encreasing so fast, that it was three Foot above the Gun-Deck, before we endeavoured to save our selves. She sunk so fast, that before the Boats could take out the Men (although there was great diligence used) the Ship was under Water, and several of our Men perished with her, Sir John Berry hardly escaping by a Rope over the Stern, into Captain Wybourn's Boat.

— except from The London Gazette, Thursday 11 May to Monday 15 May 1682, No. 1720[13][71]

Isaac Sailmaker (undated), HMS Gloucester aground off Great Yarmouth on 6 May 1682. In reality the sandbank would not have been visible.

Protocol dictated that no-one could abandon a ship while there was still a member of the royal family aboard, so James' reluctance to leave the Gloucester, and his insistence that his strongbox containing his political documents should also be loaded onto his boat, delayed the start of the evacuation.[67][note 8] A second boat lowered from the Gloucester was quickly filled with passengers and crew.[67] Other boats managed to rescue more people, and many were saved, but between 130 and 250 sailors and passengers lost their lives. Amongst those drowned were Robert Ker, 3rd Earl of Roxburghe, Donough O'Brien, Lord Ibrackan, Lord Hopton,[13][62] and the Duke of York's brother-in-law James Hyde, who was a second lieutenant on the Gloucester. A letter published soon after the disaster revealed that nearly all the duke's retinue of servants had drowned as well.[72]

The Duke of York completed his voyage to Scotland on board the yacht Mary, accompanied by the Katherine and the Charlotte. On 7 May he reached Edinburgh, and was reunited with his family.[73][74]

The sinking of Gloucester "became key to the political fortunes and perceptions of the Duke".[75] He was later accused of having "taken particular care of his strong-box, his dogs, and his priests", while George Legge "with drawn sword kept off the other passengers".[13] James denied any responsibility for the loss of life, instead blaming the ship's pilot, James Ayres, and demanding that he be hanged immediately. Ayres was subsequently court-martialled and imprisoned, but released after being incarcerated for a year.[76]