Kathoey

Bunmi, a Thai Buddhist author, believes that homosexuality stems from "lower level spirits" (phi-sang-thewada), a factor that is influenced by one's past life.[7] Some Buddhists view kathoeys as persons born with a disability as a consequence of past sins.[7] Using the notion of karma, some Thais believe that being a kathoey is the result of transgressions in past lives, concluding that kathoey deserve pity rather than blame.[14] Others, however, believe that kathoeys should rectify their past life transgressions.[15] This is done through merit-making such as "making donations to a temple or by ordaining as monks".[15]

Many kathoey work in predominately female occupations, such as in shops, restaurants, and beauty salons, but also in factories (a reflection of Thailand's high proportion of female industrial workers).[20] Discrimination in employment is rampant as many perceive kathoeys as having mental problems and refuse to hire them.[21] For this reason, many kathoeys are only able to find work in sex and entertainment industries.[21] These sorts of jobs include tourist centers, cabarets, and sex work.[21] Kathoeys who work in the tourism sector must conform to a physical image that is preferred by tourists.[21]

Kathoeys who obtain jobs in the civil service sector are required to wear uniforms coinciding with their assigned sex of male.[22]

Many schools teach students that being transgender is wrong and a form of sexual deviancy.[15] Thai schools utilize gendered uniforms as well.[23] In 2015, Bangkok University revised its uniform guidelines to allow transgender students to wear the uniform of their preferred gender, however, many other institutions still force transgender students to wear the uniform that matches their assigned sex.[23]

Legal recognition of kathoeys and transgender people is nonexistent in Thailand: even if a transgender person has had sex reassignment surgery, they are not allowed to change their legal sex on their identification documents.[22] Identification documents are particularly important for daily life in Thailand as they facilitate communication with businesses, bureaucratic agencies (i.e., signing up for educational courses or medical care), law enforcement, etc.[22] The primary identification form used in Thailand is The Thai National Identification Card, which is used for many important processes such as opening a bank account.[22] The vast majority of transgender people are unable to change these documents to reflect their chosen gender, and those who are allowed must uphold strict standards.[24] Transgender individuals are often accused of falsifying documents and are forced to show their identification documents.[22] This threatens their safety and results in their exclusion from various institutions like education or housing.[22] Impeded by these identity cards on a daily basis, transgender people are "outed" by society.[25]

The criminal justice sector relies on identification cards when deciding where to detain individuals.[22] This means that kathoeys are detained alongside men.[22] By law, women are not allowed to be detained alongside men, and since kathoeys are not legally classified as women, they reside in the male section in prison.[22] Within prison, kathoeys are forced to cut their hair and abide by strict rules governing gender expression.[22] Additionally, they are denied access to hormones and other "transition-related health care".[22]

Transgender individuals were automatically exempted from compulsory military service in Thailand. Kathoeys were deemed to suffer from "mental illness" or "permanent mental disorder".[26] These mental disorders were required to appear on their military service documents, which are accessible to future employers. In 2006, the Thai National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) overturned the use of discriminatory phraseology in Thailand's military service exemption documents.[26] With Thai law banning citizens from changing their sex on their identification documents, everyone under the male category must attend a "lottery day" where they are randomly selected to enlist in the army for two years. In March 2008, the military added a "third category" for transgender people that dismissed them from service due to "illness that cannot be cured within 30 days".[27] In 2012, the Administrative Court ruled that the Military and Defense needed to revise the reasoning for their exemption of kathoeys from the military.[22] As such, kathoeys are now exempt from the military under the reasoning that their "gender does not match their sex at birth".[22]

Kathoeys began to gain prominence in the cinema of Thailand during the late-1980s.[28] The depiction at first was negative by showing kathoeys suffering bad karma, suicide, and abandoned by straight lovers.[28] Independent and experimental films contributed to defying sexual norms in gay cinema in the 1990s.[29] The 2000 film The Iron Ladies, directed by Yongyoot Thongkongtoon, depicted a positive portrayal of an almost entirely kathoey volleyball team by displaying their confidence.[28] The rising middle-class in Bangkok and vernacular queer culture made the mainstream portrayal of kathoeys more popular on television and in art house cinemas.[30]

Feminine beauty in Thailand allowed transgender people to have their own platform where they are able to challenge stereotypes and claim cultural recognition.[31] Miss Tiffany's Universe is a beauty contest that is opened to all transgender women. Beginning in 1998, the pageant takes place every May in Pattaya, Thailand. With over 100 applicants, the pageant is considered to be one of the most popular transgender pageants in the world. Through beauty pageants, Thailand has been able to promote the country's cosmetic surgery industry, which has had a massive increase in medical tourism for sex reassignment surgery. According to the Miss Tiffany's Universe website, the live broadcast attracts record of fifteen million viewers. The winner of the pageant receives a tiara, sash, car, and a grand prize of 100,000 baht (US$3,000), equivalent to an annual wage for a Thai factory worker.[32] The assistant manager director, Alisa Phanthusak, stated that the pageant wants kathoeys to be visible and to treat them as normal.[2] It is the biggest annual event in Pattaya.[33]

Transgender beauty contests are found in the countryside at village fairs or festivals.[7] All-male revues are common in gay bars in Bangkok and as drag shows in the tourist resort of Pattaya.[7]

Thai activists have mobilized for over two decades to secure sexual diversity rights.[38] Beauty pageant winner Yollada Suanyot, known as Nok, founded the Trans Female Association of Thailand on the basis of changing sex designation on identification cards for post-operative transgender women.[38] Nok promoted the term phuying kham-phet instead of kathoey but was controversial because of its connotation with gender identity disorder.[38] The goal of the Thai Transgender Alliance is to delist gender dysphoria from international psychological diagnostic criteria. The Alliance uses the term kathoey to advocate for transgender identity.[38] A common protest sign during sexual rights marches is Kathoey mai chai rok-jit meaning "Kathoey are not mentally ill".[38]

Activism in Thailand is discouraged if it interferes with official policy.[39] In January 2006, the Thai Network of People Living With HIV/AIDS had their offices raided after demonstrations against Thai-US foreign trade agreements.[39] Under the Thai Constitution of 1997, the right to be free of discrimination based on health conditions helped to minimize the stigma against communities living with HIV/AIDS.[39] In most cases, governments and their agencies fail to protect transgender people against these exclusions.[11] There is a lack of HIV/AIDS services for specifically transgender people, and feminizing hormones largely go without any medical monitoring.[11]

Trans prejudice has produced discriminatory behaviors that have led to the exclusion of transgender people from economic and social activity.[40] Worldwide, transgender people face discrimination amongst family members, in religious and educational settings, and the workplace.[11] Accepted mainly in fashion-related jobs or show business, transgender people are discriminated against in the job market and have limited job opportunities.[38] Kathoeys have also experienced ridicule from coworkers and tend to have lower salaries.[13] Long-term unemployment reduces the chances of contributing to welfare for the family and lowers self-esteem, causing a higher likelihood of prostitution in specialized ladyboy bars.[11] "Ladyboy" bars also can provide a sense of community and reinforces a female sense of identity for kathoeys.[11] Harassment from the police is evident especially for kathoeys who work on the streets.[11] Kathoeys may be rejected in official contexts being rejected entry or services.[13]

Based on a study by AIDS Care participants who identified as a girl or kathoey at an early age were more likely to be exposed to prejudice or violence from men in their families.[41] Kathoeys are more subjected to sexual attacks from men than are other homosexuals.[9]

Anjaree is one of Thailand's gay feminist organizations, established in mid-1986 by women's right activists.[42] The organization advocated wider public understanding of homosexuality based on the principles of human rights. The first public campaign opposing sexual irregularity was launched in 1996.[43]

Social spaces are often limited for kathoeys even if Thai society does not actively persecute them.[13] Indigenous Thai cultural traditions have given a social space for sexual minorities.[11] In January 2015, the Thai government announced it would recognize the third sex in its constitution in order to ensure all sexes be treated equally under the law.[2]

"Uncle Go Paknam", created by Pratchaya Phanthathorn, is a popular queer advice column that first appeared in 1975 in a magazine titled Plaek, meaning 'strange'.[8] Through letters and responses it became an outlet to express the desires and necessities of the queer community in Thailand.[8] The magazine achieved national popularity because of its bizarre and often gay content.[8] It portrayed positive accounts of kathoeys and men called "sharks" to view transgender people as legitimate or even preferred sexual partners and started a more accepting public discourse in Thailand.[8] Under the pen name of Phan Thathron he wrote the column "Girls to the Power of 2" that included profiles of kathoeys in a glamorous or erotic pose.[8] "Girls to the Power of 2" were the first accounts of kathoey lives based on interviews that allowed their voices to be published in the mainstream press of Thailand.[8] The heterosexual public became more inclined to read about transgender communities that were previously given negative press in Thai newspapers.[8] Go Paknam's philosophy was "kathoeys are good (for men)."[8]

A documentary entitled Inside Thailand's Third Gender examines the lives of kathoeys in Thailand and features interviews with various transgender women, the obstacles these people face with their family and lovers, but moreover on a larger societal aspect where they feel ostracized by the religious Thai culture. Following contestants participating in one of the largest transgender beauty pageants, known as Miss Tiffany's Universe, the film not only illustrates the process and competition that takes place during the beauty pageant, but also highlights the systems of oppression that take place to target the transgender community in Thailand.