Homosexuality

Homosexuality is a sexual attraction, romantic attraction, or sexual behavior between members of the same sex or gender.[1][2][3] As a sexual orientation, homosexuality is "an enduring pattern of emotional, romantic, and/or sexual attractions" exclusively to people of the same sex or gender.[4] It "also refers to a person's sense of identity based on those attractions, related behaviors, and membership in a community of others who share those attractions."[5][6]

Along with bisexuality and heterosexuality, homosexuality is one of the three main categories of sexual orientation within the heterosexual–homosexual continuum.[5] Scientists do not yet know the exact cause of sexual orientation, but they theorize that it is caused by a complex interplay of genetic, hormonal, and environmental influences[7][8] and do not view it as a choice.[7][9] Although no single theory on the cause of sexual orientation has yet gained widespread support, scientists favor biologically based theories.[7] There is considerably more evidence supporting nonsocial, biological causes of sexual orientation than social ones, especially for males.[10][11][12] There is no substantive evidence which suggests parenting or early childhood experiences play a role with regard to sexual orientation.[13] While some people believe that homosexual activity is unnatural,[14] scientific research shows that homosexuality is a normal and natural variation in human sexuality and is not in and of itself a source of negative psychological effects.[5][15] There is insufficient evidence to support the use of psychological interventions to change sexual orientation.[16][17]

The most common terms for homosexual people are lesbian for females and gay for males, but the term gay also commonly refers to both homosexual females and males. The percentage of people who are gay or lesbian and the proportion of people who are in same-sex romantic relationships or have had same-sex sexual experiences are difficult for researchers to estimate reliably for a variety of reasons, including many gay and lesbian people not openly identifying as such due to prejudice or discrimination such as homophobia and heterosexism.[18] Homosexual behavior has also been documented in many non-human animal species,[24] though humans are one of only two species known to exhibit a homosexual orientation.[10]

Many gay and lesbian people are in committed same-sex relationships. These relationships are equivalent to heterosexual relationships in essential psychological respects.[6] Homosexual relationships and acts have been admired, as well as condemned, throughout recorded history, depending on the form they took and the culture in which they occurred.[25] Since the end of the 20th century, there has been a global movement towards freedom and equality for gay people, including the introduction of anti-bullying legislation to protect gay children at school, legislation ensuring non-discrimination, equal ability to serve in the military, equal access to health care, equal ability to adopt and parent, and the establishment of marriage equality.

Etymology

The word homosexual is a Greek and Latin hybrid, with the first element derived from Greek ὁμός homos, "same" (not related to the Latin homo, "man", as in Homo sapiens), thus connoting sexual acts and affections between members of the same sex, including lesbianism.[26][27] The first known appearance of homosexual in print is found in an 1868 letter to Karl Heinrich Ulrichs by the Austrian-born novelist Karl-Maria Kertbeny.[28][29] arguing against a Prussian anti-sodomy law.[29][30] In 1886, the psychiatrist Richard von Krafft-Ebing used the terms homosexual and heterosexual in his book Psychopathia Sexualis. Krafft-Ebing's book was so popular among both laymen and doctors that the terms heterosexual and homosexual became the most widely accepted terms for sexual orientation.[31][32] As such, the current use of the term has its roots in the broader 19th-century tradition of personality taxonomy.

Many modern style guides in the U.S. recommend against using homosexual as a noun, instead using gay man or lesbian.[33] Similarly, some recommend completely avoiding usage of homosexual as it has a negative, clinical history and because the word only refers to one's sexual behavior (as opposed to romantic feelings) and thus it has a negative connotation.[33] Gay and lesbian are the most common alternatives. The first letters are frequently combined to create the initialism LGBT (sometimes written as GLBT), in which B and T refer to bisexual and transgender people.

Gay especially refers to male homosexuality,[34] but may be used in a broader sense to refer to all LGBT people. In the context of sexuality, lesbian refers only to female homosexuality. The word lesbian is derived from the name of the Greek island Lesbos, where the poet Sappho wrote largely about her emotional relationships with young women.[35][36]

Although early writers also used the adjective homosexual to refer to any single-sex context (such as an all-girls school), today the term is used exclusively in reference to sexual attraction, activity, and orientation. The term homosocial is now used to describe single-sex contexts that are not specifically sexual. There is also a word referring to same-sex love, homophilia.

Some synonyms for same-sex attraction or sexual activity include men who have sex with men or MSM (used in the medical community when specifically discussing sexual activity) and homoerotic (referring to works of art).[37][38] Pejorative terms in English include queer, faggot, fairy, poof, poofter[39] and homo.[40][41][42][43] Beginning in the 1990s, some of these have been reclaimed as positive words by gay men and lesbians, as in the usage of queer studies, queer theory, and even the popular American television program Queer Eye for the Straight Guy.[44] The word homo occurs in many other languages without the pejorative connotations it has in English.[45] As with ethnic slurs and racial slurs, the use of these terms can still be highly offensive. The range of acceptable use for these terms depends on the context and speaker.[46] Conversely, gay, a word originally embraced by homosexual men and women as a positive, affirmative term (as in gay liberation and gay rights),[47] came into widespread pejorative use among young people in the early 2000s.[48]

The American LGBT rights organization GLAAD advises the media to avoid using the term homosexual to describe gay people or same-sex relationships as the term is "frequently used by anti-gay extremists to denigrate gay people, couples and relationships".[49]

History

Some scholars argue that the term "homosexuality" is problematic when applied to ancient cultures since, for example, neither Greeks or Romans possessed any one word covering the same semantic range as the modern concept of "homosexuality".[50][51] Nor did there exist a distinction of lifestyle or differentiation of psychological or behavioral profiles in the ancient world.[52] However, there were diverse sexual practices that varied in acceptance depending on time and place.[50] In ancient Greece, the pattern of adolescent boys engaging in sexual practices with older males did not constitute a homosexual identity in the modern sense since such relations were seen as phases in life, not permanent orientations, since later on the younger partners would commonly marry females and reproduce.[53] Other scholars argue that there are significant continuities between ancient and modern homosexuality.[54][55]

Burning of two homosexuals (the knight Richard von Hohenburg and his squire Anton Mätzler) at the stake outside Zürich, 1482 (from the Spiezer Schilling chronicle)

In cultures influenced by Abrahamic religions, the law and the church established sodomy as a transgression against divine law or a crime against nature. The condemnation of anal sex between males, however, predates Christian belief. Throughout the majority of Christian history, most Christian theologians and denominations have considered homosexual behavior as immoral or sinful.[56][57] Condemnation was frequent in ancient Greece; for instance, the idea of male anal sex being "unnatural" is described by a character of Plato's,[58] though he had earlier written of the benefits of homosexual relationships.[59]

Many historical figures, including Socrates, Lord Byron, Edward II, and Hadrian,[60] have had terms such as gay or bisexual applied to them. Some scholars have regarded uses of such modern terms on people from the past as an anachronistic introduction of a contemporary construction of sexuality that would have been foreign to their times.[61][52] Other scholars see continuity instead.[62][55][54]

In social science, there has been a dispute between "essentialist" and "constructionist" views of homosexuality. The debate divides those who believe that terms such as "gay" and "straight" refer to objective, culturally invariant properties of persons from those who believe that the experiences they name are artifacts of unique cultural and social processes. "Essentialists" typically believe that sexual preferences are determined by biological forces, while "constructionists" assume that sexual desires are learned.[63] The philosopher of science Michael Ruse has stated that the social constructionist approach, which is influenced by Foucault, is based on a selective reading of the historical record that confuses the existence of homosexual people with the way in which they are labelled or treated.[64]

Africa

The first record of a possible homosexual couple in history is commonly regarded as Khnumhotep and Niankhkhnum, an ancient Egyptian male couple, who lived around 2400 BCE. The pair are portrayed in a nose-kissing position, the most intimate pose in Egyptian art, surrounded by what appear to be their heirs. The anthropologists Stephen Murray and Will Roscoe reported that women in Lesotho engaged in socially sanctioned "long term, erotic relationships" called motsoalle.[65] The anthropologist E. E. Evans-Pritchard also recorded that male Azande warriors in the northern Congo routinely took on young male lovers between the ages of twelve and twenty, who helped with household tasks and participated in intercrural sex with their older husbands.[66]

Americas

Indigenous cultures

Dance to the Berdache
Sac and Fox Nation ceremonial dance to celebrate the two-spirit person. George Catlin (1796–1872); Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
Illustration of two Aztec homosexual men talking, from the Florentine Codex (1577)

As is true of many other non-Western cultures, it is difficult to determine the extent to which Western notions of sexual orientation and gender identity apply to Pre-Columbian cultures. Evidence of homoerotic sexual acts and transvestism has been found in many pre-conquest civilizations in Latin America, such as the Aztecs, Mayas, Quechuas, Moches, Zapotecs, the Incas, and the Tupinambá of Brazil.[67][68][69]

The Spanish conquerors were horrified to discover sodomy openly practiced among native peoples, and attempted to crush it out by subjecting the berdaches (as the Spanish called them) under their rule to severe penalties, including public execution, burning and being torn to pieces by dogs.[70] The Spanish conquerors talked extensively of sodomy among the natives to depict them as savages and hence justify their conquest and forceful conversion to Christianity. As a result of the growing influence and power of the conquerors, many native cultures started condemning homosexual acts themselves.

Among some of the indigenous peoples of the Americas in North America prior to European colonization, a relatively common form of same-sex sexuality centered around the figure of the Two-Spirit individual (the term itself was coined only in 1990). Typically, this individual was recognized early in life, given a choice by the parents to follow the path and, if the child accepted the role, raised in the appropriate manner, learning the customs of the gender it had chosen. Two-Spirit individuals were commonly shamans and were revered as having powers beyond those of ordinary shamans. Their sexual life was with the ordinary tribe members of the same sex.

During the colonial times following the European invasion, homosexuality was prosecuted by the Inquisition, sometimes leading to death sentences on the charges of sodomy, and the practices became clandestine. Many homosexual individuals went into heterosexual marriages to maintain appearances, and many joined the (unmarried) Catholic clergy to escape public scrutiny of their lack of interest in the opposite sex.

Canada

During the colonial period, both the French and the British criminalised same-sex sexual relations. Anal sex between males was a capital offence.[71] Post-Confederation, anal sex and acts of "gross indecency" continued to be criminal offences, but were no longer capital offences.[72] Individuals were prosecuted for same-sex sexual activity as late as the 1960s, which led to the federal Parliament amending the Criminal Code in 1969 to provide that anal sex between consenting adults in private (defined as only two persons) was not a criminal offence. In advocating for the law, the then-Minister of Justice, Pierre Trudeau, said: "The state has no place in the bedrooms of the nation."[73]

In 1995, the Supreme Court of Canada held that sexual orientation is a protected personal characteristic under the equality clause of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.[74] The federal Parliament and provincial legislatures began to amend their laws to treat same-sex relations in the same way as opposite-sex relations. Beginning in 2003, the courts in Canada began to rule that excluding same-sex couples from marriage violated the equality clause of the Charter. In 2005, the federal Parliament enacted the Civil Marriage Act, which legalised same-sex marriage across Canada.[75]

Canada has been referred to as the most gay-friendly country in the world, ranked first in the Gay Travel Index chart in 2018, and among the five safest in Forbes magazine in 2019.[76][77] It was also ranked first in Asher & Lyric's LGBTQ+ Danger Index in a 2021 update.[78]

United States

In 1986, the Supreme Court of the United States ruled in Bowers v. Hardwick that a state could criminalize sodomy, but, in 2003, overturned itself in Lawrence v. Texas and thereby legalized homosexual activity throughout the United States of America.

It is only since the 2010s that census forms and political conditions have facilitated the visibility and enumeration of same-sex relationships.[79]

Same-sex marriage in the United States expanded from one state in 2004 to all 50 states in 2015, through various state court rulings, state legislation, direct popular votes (referendums and initiatives), and federal court rulings.

East Asia

Anal sex between two males being watched, Qing dynasty.

In East Asia, same-sex love has been referred to since the earliest recorded history.

Homosexuality in China, known as the passions of the cut peach and various other euphemisms, has been recorded since approximately 600 BCE. Homosexuality was mentioned in many famous works of Chinese literature. The instances of same-sex affection and sexual interactions described in the classical novel Dream of the Red Chamber seem as familiar to observers in the present as do equivalent stories of romances between heterosexual people during the same period. Confucianism, being primarily a social and political philosophy, focused little on sexuality, whether homosexual or heterosexual. Ming dynasty literature, such as Bian Er Chai (弁而釵/弁而钗), portray homosexual relationships between men as more enjoyable and more "harmonious" than heterosexual relationships.[80] Writings from the Liu Song dynasty by Wang Shunu claimed that homosexuality was as common as heterosexuality in the late 3rd century.[81]

Opposition to homosexuality in China originates in the medieval Tang dynasty (618–907), attributed to the rising influence of Christian and Islamic values,[82] but did not become fully established until the Westernization efforts of the late Qing dynasty and the Republic of China.[83]

South Asia

The Laws of Manu mentions a "third sex", members of which may engage in nontraditional gender expression and homosexual activities.[84]

Classical period

The earliest Western documents (in the form of literary works, art objects, and mythographic materials) concerning same-sex relationships are derived from ancient Greece.

In regard to male homosexuality, such documents depict an at times complex understanding in which relationships with women and relationships with adolescent boys could be a part of a normal man's love life. Same-sex relationships were a social institution variously constructed over time and from one city to another. The formal practice, an erotic yet often restrained relationship between a free adult male and a free adolescent, was valued for its pedagogic benefits and as a means of population control, though occasionally blamed for causing disorder. Plato praised its benefits in his early writings[59] but in his late works proposed its prohibition.[85] Aristotle, in the Politics, dismissed Plato's ideas about abolishing homosexuality (2.4); he explains that barbarians like the Celts accorded it a special honor (2.6.6), while the Cretans used it to regulate the population (2.7.5).[86]

Some scholars argue that there are examples of homosexual love in ancient literature, such as Achilles and Patroclus in the Iliad.[87]

Female youths are depicted surrounding Sappho in this painting of Lafond "Sappho sings for Homer", 1824.

Little is known of female homosexuality in antiquity. Sappho, born on the island of Lesbos, was included by later Greeks in the canonical list of nine lyric poets. The adjectives deriving from her name and place of birth (Sapphic and Lesbian) came to be applied to female homosexuality beginning in the 19th century.[88][89] Sappho's poetry centers on passion and love for various personages and both genders. The narrators of many of her poems speak of infatuations and love (sometimes requited, sometimes not) for various females, but descriptions of physical acts between women are few and subject to debate.[90][91]

Sappho reading to her companions on an Attic vase of c. 435 BC

In Ancient Rome, the young male body remained a focus of male sexual attention, but relationships were between older free men and slaves or freed youths who took the receptive role in sex. The Hellenophile emperor Hadrian is renowned for his relationship with Antinous, but the Christian emperor Theodosius I decreed a law on 6 August 390, condemning passive males to be burned at the stake. Notwithstanding these regulations taxes on brothels with boys available for homosexual sex continued to be collected until the end of the reign of Anastasius I in 518. Justinian, towards the end of his reign, expanded the proscription to the active partner as well (in 558), warning that such conduct can lead to the destruction of cities through the "wrath of God".

Renaissance

During the Renaissance, wealthy cities in northern ItalyFlorence and Venice in particular—were renowned for their widespread practice of same-sex love, engaged in by a considerable part of the male population and constructed along the classical pattern of Greece and Rome.[92][93] But even as many of the male population were engaging in same-sex relationships, the authorities, under the aegis of the Officers of the Night court, were prosecuting, fining, and imprisoning a good portion of that population.

From the second half of the 13th century, death was the punishment for male homosexuality in most of Europe.[94] The relationships of socially prominent figures, such as King James I and the Duke of Buckingham, served to highlight the issue, including in anonymously authored street pamphlets: "The world is chang'd I know not how, For men Kiss Men, not Women now;...Of J. the First and Buckingham: He, true it is, his Wives Embraces fled, To slabber his lov'd Ganimede" (Mundus Foppensis, or The Fop Display'd, 1691).

Modern period

Photograph of the Finnish artist Touko Laaksonen (1920–1991) alias Tom of Finland, well known for his stylized highly masculinized homoerotic art, playing the piano in late 1950s. In the background, his partner Veli Mäkinen (left) and his sister Kaija (right).

Love Letters Between a Certain Late Nobleman and the Famous Mr. Wilson was published in 1723 in England, and is presumed by some modern scholars to be a novel. The 1749 edition of John Cleland's popular novel Fanny Hill includes a homosexual scene, but this was removed in its 1750 edition. Also in 1749, the earliest extended and serious defense of homosexuality in English, Ancient and Modern Pederasty Investigated and Exemplified, written by Thomas Cannon, was published, but was suppressed almost immediately. It includes the passage, "Unnatural Desire is a Contradiction in Terms; downright Nonsense. Desire is an amatory Impulse of the inmost human Parts."[95] Around 1785 Jeremy Bentham wrote another defense, but this was not published until 1978.[96] Executions for sodomy continued in the Netherlands until 1803, and in England until 1835, James Pratt and John Smith being the last Englishmen to be so hanged.

To this day, historians are still arguing about the question of the Sexuality of Frederick the Great (1712−1786), which essentially revolves around the taboo of whether the myth of one of the greatest war heroes in world history is allowed to be psychologically deconstructed.

Between 1864 and 1880 Karl Heinrich Ulrichs published a series of 12 tracts, which he collectively titled Research on the Riddle of Man-Manly Love. In 1867, he became the first self-proclaimed homosexual person to speak out publicly in defense of homosexuality when he pleaded at the Congress of German Jurists in Munich for a resolution urging the repeal of anti-homosexual laws.[18] Sexual Inversion by Havelock Ellis, published in 1896, challenged theories that homosexuality was abnormal, as well as stereotypes, and insisted on the ubiquity of homosexuality and its association with intellectual and artistic achievement.[97]

Although medical texts like these (written partly in Latin to obscure the sexual details) were not widely read by the general public, they did lead to the rise of Magnus Hirschfeld's Scientific-Humanitarian Committee, which campaigned from 1897 to 1933 against anti-sodomy laws in Germany, as well as a much more informal, unpublicized movement among British intellectuals and writers, led by such figures as Edward Carpenter and John Addington Symonds. Beginning in 1894 with Homogenic Love, Socialist activist and poet Edward Carpenter wrote a string of pro-homosexual articles and pamphlets, and "came out" in 1916 in his book My Days and Dreams. In 1900, Elisar von Kupffer published an anthology of homosexual literature from antiquity to his own time, Lieblingminne und Freundesliebe in der Weltliteratur.

Middle East

An illustration from the 19th-century book Sawaqub al-Manaquib depicting homosexual anal sex with a wine boy

There are a handful of accounts by Arab travelers to Europe during the mid-1800s. Two of these travelers, Rifa'ah al-Tahtawi and Muhammad as-Saffar, show their surprise that the French sometimes deliberately mistranslated love poetry about a young boy, instead referring to a young female, to maintain their social norms and morals.[98]

Israel is considered the most tolerant country in the Middle East and Asia to homosexuals,[99] with Tel Aviv being named "the gay capital of the Middle East"[100] and considered one of the most gay friendly cities in the world.[101] The annual Pride Parade in support of homosexuality takes place in Tel Aviv.[102]

On the other hand, many governments in the Middle East often ignore, deny the existence of, or criminalize homosexuality. Homosexuality is illegal in almost all Muslim countries.[103] Same-sex intercourse officially carries the death penalty in several Muslim nations: Saudi Arabia, Iran, Mauritania, northern Nigeria, and Yemen.[104] Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, during his 2007 speech at Columbia University, asserted that there were no gay people in Iran. However, the probable reason is that they keep their sexuality a secret for fear of government sanction or rejection by their families.[105]

Pre-Islamic period

Shah Abbas I of Persia with a boy. By Muhammad Qasim (1627).[106]

In ancient Sumer, a set of priests known as gala worked in the temples of the goddess Inanna, where they performed elegies and lamentations.[107]:285 Gala took female names, spoke in the eme-sal dialect, which was traditionally reserved for women, and appear to have engaged in homosexual intercourse.[108] The Sumerian sign for gala was a ligature of the signs for "penis" and "anus".[108] One Sumerian proverb reads: "When the gala wiped off his ass [he said], 'I must not arouse that which belongs to my mistress [i.e., Inanna].'"[108] In later Mesopotamian cultures, kurgarrū and assinnu were servants of the goddess Ishtar (Inanna's East Semitic equivalent), who dressed in female clothing and performed war dances in Ishtar's temples.[108] Several Akkadian proverbs seem to suggest that they may have also engaged in homosexual intercourse.[108]

In ancient Assyria, homosexuality was present and common; it was also not prohibited, condemned, nor looked upon as immoral or disordered. Some religious texts contain prayers for divine blessings on homosexual relationships.[109][110] The Almanac of Incantations contained prayers favoring on an equal basis the love of a man for a woman, of a woman for a man, and of a man for man.[111]

South Pacific

In some societies of Melanesia, especially in Papua New Guinea, same-sex relationships were an integral part of the culture until the mid-1900s. The Etoro and Marind-anim for example, viewed heterosexuality as unclean and celebrated homosexuality instead. In some traditional Melanesian cultures a prepubertal boy would be paired with an older adolescent who would become his mentor and who would "inseminate" him (orally, anally, or topically, depending on the tribe) over a number of years in order for the younger to also reach puberty. Many Melanesian societies, however, have become hostile towards same-sex relationships since the introduction of Christianity by European missionaries.[112]

Sexuality and identity

Behavior and desire

The American Psychological Association, the American Psychiatric Association, and the National Association of Social Workers identify sexual orientation as "not merely a personal characteristic that can be defined in isolation. Rather, one's sexual orientation defines the universe of persons with whom one is likely to find the satisfying and fulfilling relationships":[6]

Sexual orientation is commonly discussed as a characteristic of the individual, like biological sex, gender identity, or age. This perspective is incomplete because sexual orientation is always defined in relational terms and necessarily involves relationships with other individuals. Sexual acts and romantic attractions are categorized as homosexual or heterosexual according to the biological sex of the individuals involved in them, relative to each other. Indeed, it is by acting—or desiring to act—with another person that individuals express their heterosexuality, homosexuality, or bisexuality. This includes actions as simple as holding hands with or kissing another person. Thus, sexual orientation is integrally linked to the intimate personal relationships that human beings form with others to meet their deeply felt needs for love, attachment, and intimacy. In addition to sexual behavior, these bonds encompass nonsexual physical affection between partners, shared goals and values, mutual support, and ongoing commitment.[6]

The Kinsey scale, also called the Heterosexual-Homosexual Rating Scale,[113] attempts to describe a person's sexual history or episodes of his or her sexual activity at a given time. It uses a scale from 0, meaning exclusively heterosexual, to 6, meaning exclusively homosexual. In both the Male and Female volumes of the Kinsey Reports, an additional grade, listed as "X", has been interpreted by scholars to indicate asexuality.[114]

Sexual identity and sexual fluidity

Often, sexual orientation and sexual identity are not distinguished, which can impact accurately assessing sexual identity and whether or not sexual orientation is able to change; sexual orientation identity can change throughout an individual's life, and may or may not align with biological sex, sexual behavior or actual sexual orientation.[115][116][117] Sexual orientation is stable and unlikely to change for the vast majority of people, but some research indicates that some people may experience change in their sexual orientation, and this is more likely for women than for men.[118] The American Psychological Association distinguishes between sexual orientation (an innate attraction) and sexual orientation identity (which may change at any point in a person's life).[119]

Same-sex relationships

Male homosexuality symbol
Female homosexuality symbol

People with a homosexual orientation can express their sexuality in a variety of ways, and may or may not express it in their behaviors.[5] Many have sexual relationships predominantly with people of their own sex, though some have sexual relationships with those of the opposite sex, bisexual relationships, or none at all (celibacy).[5] Studies have found same-sex and opposite-sex couples to be equivalent to each other in measures of satisfaction and commitment in relationships, that age and sex are more reliable than sexual orientation as a predictor of satisfaction and commitment to a relationship, and that people who are heterosexual or homosexual share comparable expectations and ideals with regard to romantic relationships.[120][121][122]

Coming out of the closet

Coming out (of the closet) is a phrase referring to one's disclosure of their sexual orientation or gender identity, and is described and experienced variously as a psychological process or journey.[123] Generally, coming out is described in three phases. The first phase is that of "knowing oneself", and the realization emerges that one is open to same-sex relations.[124] This is often described as an internal coming out. The second phase involves one's decision to come out to others, e.g. family, friends, or colleagues. The third phase more generally involves living openly as an LGBT person.[125] In the United States today, people often come out during high school or college age. At this age, they may not trust or ask for help from others, especially when their orientation is not accepted in society. Sometimes their own families are not even informed.

According to Rosario, Schrimshaw, Hunter, Braun (2006), "the development of a lesbian, gay, or bisexual (LGB) sexual identity is a complex and often difficult process. Unlike members of other minority groups (e.g., ethnic and racial minorities), most LGB individuals are not raised in a community of similar others from whom they learn about their identity and who reinforce and support that identity. Rather, LGB individuals are often raised in communities that are either ignorant of or openly hostile toward homosexuality."[116]

Outing is the practice of publicly revealing the sexual orientation of a closeted person.[126] Notable politicians, celebrities, military service people, and clergy members have been outed, with motives ranging from malice to political or moral beliefs. Many commentators oppose the practice altogether,[127] while some encourage outing public figures who use their positions of influence to harm other gay people.[128]

Homoromanticism

Homosexuality is not to be confused with homoromanticism, which is the romantic attraction to the same sex or gender.[129] Most people who are homosexual are also homoromantic, but some people under the asexual spectrum, do not experience, or experience limited homosexuality. For example, homoromantic heterosexuals are described as "romantically attracted to the same or a similar gender while only being sexually attracted to the opposite gender".[130]

Demographics

In their 2016 literature review, Bailey et al. stated that they "expect that in all cultures ... a minority of individuals are sexually predisposed (whether exclusively or non-exclusively) to the same sex." They state that there is no persuasive evidence that the demographics of sexual orientation have varied much across time or place.[10] Men are more likely to be exclusively homosexual than to be equally attracted to both sexes, while the opposite is true for women.[10][11][12]

Surveys in Western cultures find, on average, that about 93% of men and 87% of women identify as completely heterosexual, 4% of men and 10% of women as mostly heterosexual, 0.5% of men and 1% of women as evenly bisexual, 0.5% of men and 0.5% of women as mostly homosexual, and 2% of men and 0.5% of women as completely homosexual.[10] An analysis of 67 studies found that the lifetime prevalence of sex between men (regardless of orientation) was 3–5% for East Asia, 6–12% for South and South East Asia, 6–15% for Eastern Europe, and 6–20% for Latin America.[131] The International HIV/AIDS Alliance estimates that worldwide between 3 and 16% of men have had some form of sex with another man at least once during their lifetime.[132]

According to major studies, 2% to 11% of people have had some form of same-sex sexual contact within their lifetime;[133][134][135][136][137] this percentage rises to 16–21% when either or both same-sex attraction and behavior are reported.[137]

According to the 2000 United States Census, there were about 601,209 same-sex unmarried partner households.[138] In the United States, according to a report by The Williams Institute in April 2011, 3.5% or approximately 9 million of the adult population identify as lesbian, gay, or bisexual.[139] A 2013 study by the CDC, in which over 34,000 Americans were interviewed, puts the percentage of self-identifying lesbians and gay men at 1.6%, and of bisexuals at 0.7%.[140]

In October 2012, Gallup started conducting annual surveys to study the demographics of LGBT people, determining that 3.4% (±1%) of adults identified as LGBT in the United States.[141] It was the nation's largest poll on the issue at the time.[142][143] In 2017, the percentage was estimated to have risen to 4.5% of adults, with the increase largely driven by millennials. The poll attributes the rise to greater willingness of younger people to reveal their sexual identity.[144]

A survey by the U.K. Office for National Statistics (ONS) in 2010 found that 95% of Britons identified as heterosexual, 1.5% of Britons identified themselves as homosexual or bisexual, and the last 3.5% gave more vague answers such as "don't know", "other", or did not respond to the question.[145]

Reliable data as to the size of the gay and lesbian population are of value in informing public policy.[146] For example, demographics are of help in calculating the costs and benefits of domestic partnership benefits, of the impact of legalizing gay adoption, and of the impact of the U.S. military's former Don't Ask Don't Tell policy.[146] Further, knowledge of the size of the "gay and lesbian population holds promise for helping social scientists understand a wide array of important questions—questions about the general nature of labor market choices, accumulation of human capital, specialization within households, discrimination, and decisions about geographic location."[146]

Measuring the prevalence of homosexuality presents difficulties. It is necessary to consider the measuring criteria that are used, the cutoff point and the time span taken to define a sexual orientation.[18] Many people, despite having same-sex attractions, may be reluctant to identify themselves as gay or bisexual. The research must measure some characteristic that may or may not be defining of sexual orientation. The number of people with same-sex desires may be larger than the number of people who act on those desires, which in turn may be larger than the number of people who self-identify as gay, lesbian, or bisexual.[146]

Psychology

The American Psychological Association, the American Psychiatric Association, and the National Association of Social Workers state:

In 1952, when the American Psychiatric Association published its first Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, homosexuality was included as a disorder. Almost immediately, however, that classification began to be subjected to critical scrutiny in research funded by the National Institute of Mental Health. That study and subsequent research consistently failed to produce any empirical or scientific basis for regarding homosexuality as a disorder or abnormality, rather than a normal and healthy sexual orientation. As results from such research accumulated, professionals in medicine, mental health, and the behavioral and social sciences reached the conclusion that it was inaccurate to classify homosexuality as a mental disorder and that the DSM classification reflected untested assumptions based on once-prevalent social norms and clinical impressions from unrepresentative samples comprising patients seeking therapy and individuals whose conduct brought them into the criminal justice system.

In recognition of the scientific evidence,[147] the American Psychiatric Association removed homosexuality from the DSM in 1973, stating that "homosexuality per se implies no impairment in judgment, stability, reliability, or general social or vocational capabilities." After thoroughly reviewing the scientific data, the American Psychological Association adopted the same position in 1975, and urged all mental health professionals "to take the lead in removing the stigma of mental illness that has long been associated with homosexual orientations." The National Association of Social Workers has adopted a similar policy.

Thus, mental health professionals and researchers have long recognized that being homosexual poses no inherent obstacle to leading a happy, healthy, and productive life, and that the vast majority of gay and lesbian people function well in the full array of social institutions and interpersonal relationships.[6]

The consensus of research and clinical literature demonstrates that same-sex sexual and romantic attractions, feelings, and behaviors are normal and positive variations of human sexuality.[148] There is now a large body of research evidence that indicates that being gay, lesbian or bisexual is compatible with normal mental health and social adjustment.[13] The World Health Organization's ICD-9 (1977) listed homosexuality as a mental illness; it was removed from the ICD-10, endorsed by the Forty-third World Health Assembly on 17 May 1990.[149][150][151] Like the DSM-II, the ICD-10 added ego-dystonic sexual orientation to the list, which refers to people who want to change their gender identities or sexual orientation because of a psychological or behavioral disorder (F66.1). The Chinese Society of Psychiatry removed homosexuality from its Chinese Classification of Mental Disorders in 2001 after five years of study by the association.[152] According to the Royal College of Psychiatrists "This unfortunate history demonstrates how marginalisation of a group of people who have a particular personality feature (in this case homosexuality) can lead to harmful medical practice and a basis for discrimination in society."[13] In response to claims on The Nolan Show regarding homosexuality being a psychiatric disorder, the Royal College of Psychiatrists wrote:[153]

There is now a large body of research evidence that indicates that being gay, lesbian or bisexual is compatible with normal mental health and social adjustment. However, the experiences of discrimination in society and possible rejection by friends, families and others, such as employers, means that some LGB people experience a greater than expected prevalence of mental health difficulties and substance misuse problems. Although there have been claims by conservative political groups in the USA that this higher prevalence of mental health difficulties is confirmation that homosexuality is itself a mental disorder, there is no evidence whatever to substantiate such a claim.

Most lesbian, gay, and bisexual people who seek psychotherapy do so for the same reasons as heterosexual people (stress, relationship difficulties, difficulty adjusting to social or work situations, etc.); their sexual orientation may be of primary, incidental, or no importance to their issues and treatment. Whatever the issue, there is a high risk for anti-gay bias in psychotherapy with lesbian, gay, and bisexual clients.[154] Psychological research in this area has been relevant to counteracting prejudicial ("homophobic") attitudes and actions, and to the LGBT rights movement generally.[155]

The appropriate application of affirmative psychotherapy is based on the following scientific facts:[148]

  • Same-sex sexual attractions, behavior, and orientations per se are normal and positive variants of human sexuality; in other words, they are not indicators of mental or developmental disorders.
  • Homosexuality and bisexuality are stigmatized, and this stigma can have a variety of negative consequences (e.g., minority stress) throughout the life span (D'Augelli & Patterson, 1995; DiPlacido, 1998; Herek & Garnets, 2007; Meyer, 1995, 2003).
  • Same-sex sexual attractions and behavior can occur in the context of a variety of sexual orientations and sexual orientation identities (Diamond, 2006; Hoburg et al., 2004; Rust, 1996; Savin-Williams, 2005).
  • Gay men, lesbians, and bisexual individuals can live satisfying lives as well as form stable, committed relationships and families that are equivalent to heterosexual relationships in essential respects (APA, 2005c; Kurdek, 2001, 2003, 2004; Peplau & Fingerhut, 2007).
  • There are no empirical studies or peer-reviewed research that support theories attributing same-sex sexual orientation to family dysfunction or trauma (Bell et al., 1981; Bene, 1965; Freund & Blanchard, 1983; Freund & Pinkava, 1961; Hooker, 1969; McCord et al., 1962; D. K. Peters & Cantrell, 1991; Siegelman, 1974, 1981; Townes et al., 1976).

Sexual orientation change efforts

There are no studies of adequate scientific rigor that conclude that sexual orientation change efforts work to change a person's sexual orientation. Those efforts have been controversial due to tensions between the values held by some faith-based organizations, on the one hand, and those held by LGBT rights organizations and professional and scientific organizations and other faith-based organizations, on the other.[16] The longstanding consensus of the behavioral and social sciences and the health and mental health professions is that homosexuality per se is a normal and positive variation of human sexual orientation, and therefore not a mental disorder.[16] The American Psychological Association says that "most people experience little or no sense of choice about their sexual orientation".[156] Some individuals and groups have promoted the idea of homosexuality as symptomatic of developmental defects or spiritual and moral failings and have argued that sexual orientation change efforts, including psychotherapy and religious efforts, could alter homosexual feelings and behaviors. Many of these individuals and groups appeared to be embedded within the larger context of conservative religious political movements that have supported the stigmatization of homosexuality on political or religious grounds.[16]

No major mental health professional organization has sanctioned efforts to change sexual orientation and virtually all of them have adopted policy statements cautioning the profession and the public about treatments that purport to change sexual orientation. These include the American Psychiatric Association, American Psychological Association, American Counseling Association, National Association of Social Workers in the U.S.,[157] the Royal College of Psychiatrists,[158] and the Australian Psychological Society.[159] The American Psychological Association and the Royal College of Psychiatrists expressed concerns that the positions espoused by NARTH are not supported by the science and create an environment in which prejudice and discrimination can flourish.[158][160]

The American Psychiatric Association says "individuals maybe become aware at different points in their lives that they are heterosexual, gay, lesbian, or bisexual" and "opposes any psychiatric treatment, such as 'reparative' or 'conversion' therapy, which is based upon the assumption that homosexuality per se is a mental disorder, or based upon a prior assumption that the patient should change his/her homosexual orientation". They do, however, encourage gay affirmative psychotherapy.[161] Similarly, the American Psychological Association is doubtful about the effectiveness and side-effect profile of sexual orientation change efforts, including conversion therapy.[162]

The American Psychological Association "encourages mental health professionals to avoid misrepresenting the efficacy of sexual orientation change efforts by promoting or promising change in sexual orientation when providing assistance to individuals distressed by their own or others' sexual orientation and concludes that the benefits reported by participants in sexual orientation change efforts can be gained through approaches that do not attempt to change sexual orientation".[16]

Causes

Biological vs. environmental determinants

Although scientists favor biological models for the cause of sexual orientation,[7] they do not believe that the development of sexual orientation is the result of any one factor. They generally believe that it is determined by a complex interplay of biological and environmental factors, and is shaped at an early age.[5][8] There is considerably more evidence supporting nonsocial, biological causes of sexual orientation than social ones, especially for males.[10] There is no substantive evidence which suggests parenting or early childhood experiences play a role with regard to sexual orientation.[13] Scientists do not believe that sexual orientation is a choice.[7][9]

The American Academy of Pediatrics stated in Pediatrics in 2004:

There is no scientific evidence that abnormal parenting, sexual abuse, or other adverse life events influence sexual orientation. Current knowledge suggests that sexual orientation is usually established during early childhood.[7][163]

The American Psychological Association, American Psychiatric Association, and National Association of Social Workers stated in 2006:

Currently, there is no scientific consensus about the specific factors that cause an individual to become heterosexual, homosexual, or bisexual—including possible biological, psychological, or social effects of the parents' sexual orientation. However, the available evidence indicates that the vast majority of lesbian and gay adults were raised by heterosexual parents and the vast majority of children raised by lesbian and gay parents eventually grow up to be heterosexual.[5]

"Gay genes"

Despite numerous attempts, no "gay gene" has been identified. However, there is substantial evidence for a genetic basis of homosexuality, especially in males, based on twin studies; some association with regions of Chromosome 8, the Xq28 locus on the X chromosome, and other sites across many chromosomes.[164]

List of chromosomal locations associated with sexual orientation
Chromosome LocationAssociated genes Sex Study1 Origin Note
X chromosomeXq28
Speculative
male only Hamer et al. 1993

Sanders et al. 2015

genetic
Chromosome 1 1p36 both sexes Ellis et al. 2008 potential genetic linkage2
Chromosome 4 4p14 female only Ganna et al. 2019
Chromosome 7 7q31 both sexes Ganna et al. 2019
Chromosome 8 8p12 NKAIN3 male only Mustanski et al. 2005

Sanders et al. 2015

Sanders et al. 2017

Chromosome 9 9q34 ABO both sexes Ellis et al. 2008 potential genetic linkage2
Chromosome 11 11q12 OR51A7 (speculative) male only Ganna et al. 2019 Olfactory system in mating preferences
Chromosome 12 12q21 both sexes Ganna et al. 2019
Chromosome 13 13q31 SLITRK6 male only Sanders et al. 2017 Diencephalon-associated gene
Chromosome 14 14q31 TSHR male only Sanders et al. 2017
Chromosome 15 15q21 TCF12 male only Ganna et al. 2019
1Reported primary studies are not conclusive evidence of any relationship.
2Not believed to be causal.

Starting in the 2010s, potential epigenetic factors have become a topic of increased attention in genetic research on sexual orientation. A study presented at the ASHG 2015 Annual Meeting found that the methylation pattern in nine regions of the genome appeared very closely linked to sexual orientation, with a resulting algorithm using the methylation pattern to predict the sexual orientation of a control group with almost 70% accuracy.[165][166]

Research into the causes of homosexuality plays a role in political and social debates and also raises concerns about genetic profiling and prenatal testing.[167][168]

Evolutionary perspectives

Since homosexuality tends to lower reproductive success, and since there is considerable evidence that human sexual orientation is genetically influenced, it is unclear how it is maintained in the population at a relatively high frequency.[169] There are many possible explanations, such as genes predisposing to homosexuality also conferring advantage in heterosexuals, a kin selection effect, social prestige, and more.[170] A 2009 study also suggested a significant increase in fecundity in the females related to homosexual people from the maternal line (but not in those related from the paternal one).[171]

Parenting

Scientific research has been generally consistent in showing that lesbian and gay parents are as fit and capable as heterosexual parents, and their children are as psychologically healthy and well-adjusted as children reared by heterosexual parents.[172][173][174] According to scientific literature reviews, there is no evidence to the contrary.[6][175][176][177][178]

A 2001 review suggested that the children with lesbian or gay parents appear less traditionally gender-typed and are more likely to be open to homoerotic relationships, partly due to genetic (80% of the children being raised by same-sex couples in the US are not adopted and most are the result of previous heterosexual marriages.[179]) and family socialization processes (children grow up in relatively more tolerant school, neighborhood, and social contexts, which are less heterosexist), even though majority of children raised by same-sex couples identify as heterosexual.[180] A 2005 review by Charlotte J. Patterson for the American Psychological Association found that the available data did not suggest higher rates of homosexuality among the children of lesbian or gay parents.[181]

Health

Physical

Blood donation policies for men who have sex with men
  – Men who have sex with men may donate blood; No deferral
  – Men who have sex with men may donate blood; Temporary deferral
  – Men who have sex with men may not donate blood; Permanent deferral
  – No Data

The terms "men who have sex with men" (MSM) and "women who have sex with women" (WSW) refer to people who engage in sexual activity with others of the same sex regardless of how they identify themselves—as many choose not to accept social identities as lesbian, gay and bisexual.[182][183][184][185][186] These terms are often used in medical literature and social research to describe such groups for study, without needing to consider the issues of sexual self-identity. The terms are seen as problematic by some, however, because they "obscure social dimensions of sexuality; undermine the self-labeling of lesbian, gay, and bisexual people; and do not sufficiently describe variations in sexual behavior".[187]

In contrast to its benefits, sexual behavior can be a disease vector. Safe sex is a relevant harm reduction philosophy.[188] Many countries currently prohibit men who have sex with men from donating blood; the policy of the United States Food and Drug Administration states that "they are, as a group, at increased risk for HIV, hepatitis B and certain other infections that can be transmitted by transfusion."[189]

Public health

These safer sex recommendations are agreed upon by public health officials for women who have sex with women to avoid sexually transmitted infections (STIs):

  • Avoid contact with a partner's menstrual blood and with any visible genital lesions.
  • Cover sex toys that penetrate more than one person's vagina or anus with a new condom for each person; consider using different toys for each person.
  • Use a barrier (e.g., latex sheet, dental dam, cut-open condom, plastic wrap) during oral sex.
  • Use latex or vinyl gloves and lubricant for any manual sex that might cause bleeding.[190]

These safer sex recommendations are agreed upon by public health officials for men who have sex with men to avoid sexually transmitted infections:

  • Avoid contact with a partner's bodily fluids and with any visible genital lesions.
  • Use condoms for anal and oral sex.
  • Use a barrier (e.g., latex sheet, dental dam, cut-open condom) during anal–oral sex.
  • Cover sex toys that penetrate more than one person's anus with a new condom for each person; consider using different toys for each person.
  • Use latex or vinyl gloves and lubricant for any manual sex that might cause bleeding.[191][192]

Mental

When it was first described in medical literature, homosexuality was often approached from a view that sought to find an inherent psychopathology as its root cause. Much literature on mental health and homosexual patients centered on their depression, substance abuse, and suicide. Although these issues exist among people who are non-heterosexual, discussion about their causes shifted after homosexuality was removed from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) in 1973. Instead, social ostracism, legal discrimination, internalization of negative stereotypes, and limited support structures indicate factors homosexual people face in Western societies that often adversely affect their mental health.[193] Stigma, prejudice, and discrimination stemming from negative societal attitudes toward homosexuality lead to a higher prevalence of mental health disorders among lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals compared to their heterosexual peers.[194] Evidence indicates that the liberalization of these attitudes over the 1990s through the 2010s is associated with a decrease in such mental health risks among younger LGBT people.[195]

Gay and lesbian youth

Gay and lesbian youth bear an increased risk of suicide, substance abuse, school problems, and isolation because of a "hostile and condemning environment, verbal and physical abuse, rejection and isolation from family and peers".[196] Further, LGBT youths are more likely to report psychological and physical abuse by parents or caretakers, and more sexual abuse. Suggested reasons for this disparity are that (1) LGBT youths may be specifically targeted on the basis of their perceived sexual orientation or gender non-conforming appearance, and (2) that "risk factors associated with sexual minority status, including discrimination, invisibility, and rejection by family members...may lead to an increase in behaviors that are associated with risk for victimization, such as substance abuse, sex with multiple partners, or running away from home as a teenager."[197]

Crisis centers in larger cities and information sites on the Internet have arisen to help youth and adults.[198] The Trevor Project, a suicide prevention helpline for gay youth, was established following the 1998 airing on HBO of the Academy Award winning short film Trevor.[199]

Law and politics

Legality

Worldwide laws regarding same-sex intercourse, unions and expression
Same-sex intercourse illegal. Penalties:
  Death
  Prison; death not enforced
  Death under militias
  Prison, with arrests or detention
  Prison, not enforced1
Same-sex intercourse legal. Recognition of unions:
  Extraterritorial marriage2
  Limited foreign
  Optional certification
  None
  Restrictions of expression
Rings indicate local or case-by-case application.
1No imprisonment in the past three years or moratorium on law.
2Marriage not available locally. Some jurisdictions may perform other types of partnerships.

Most nations do not prohibit consensual sex between unrelated persons above the local age of consent. Some jurisdictions further recognize identical rights, protections, and privileges for the family structures of same-sex couples, including marriage. Some countries and jurisdictions mandate that all individuals restrict themselves to heterosexual activity and disallow homosexual activity via sodomy laws. Offenders can face the death penalty in Islamic countries and jurisdictions ruled by sharia. There are, however, often significant differences between official policy and real-world enforcement.

Although homosexual acts were decriminalized in some parts of the Western world, such as Poland in 1932, Denmark in 1933, Sweden in 1944, and England and Wales in 1967, it was not until the mid-1970s that the gay community first began to achieve limited civil rights in some developed countries. A turning point was reached in 1973 when the American Psychiatric Association, which previously listed homosexuality in the DSM-I in 1952, removed homosexuality in the DSM-II, in recognition of scientific evidence.[6] In 1977, Quebec became the first state-level jurisdiction in the world to prohibit discrimination on the grounds of sexual orientation. During the 1980s and 1990s, several developed countries enacted laws decriminalizing homosexual behavior and prohibiting discrimination against lesbian and gay people in employment, housing, and services. On the other hand, many countries today in the Middle East and Africa, as well as several countries in Asia, the Caribbean and the South Pacific, outlaw homosexuality. In 2013, the Supreme Court of India upheld Section 377 of the Indian Penal Code,[200] but in 2018 overturned itself and legalized homosexual activity in India.[201] Ten countries or jurisdictions, all of which are predominantly Islamic and governed according to sharia law, have imposed the death penalty for homosexuality. These include Afghanistan, Iran, Brunei, Mauritania, Saudi Arabia, and several regions in Nigeria and Jubaland.[202][203][204][205][206][207]

United States

European Union

In the European Union, discrimination of any type based on sexual orientation or gender identity is illegal under the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union.[217]

Political activism

Since the 1960s, many LGBT people in the West, particularly those in major metropolitan areas, have developed a so-called gay culture. To many, gay culture is exemplified by the gay pride movement, with annual parades and displays of rainbow flags. Yet not all LGBT people choose to participate in "queer culture", and many gay men and women specifically decline to do so. To some it seems to be a frivolous display, perpetuating gay stereotypes.

Original Rainbow Pride Flag in San Francisco, designed by Gilbert Baker in 1978

With the outbreak of AIDS in the early 1980s, many LGBT groups and individuals organized campaigns to promote efforts in AIDS education, prevention, research, patient support, and community outreach, as well as to demand government support for these programs.

The death toll wrought by the AIDS epidemic at first seemed to slow the progress of the gay rights movement, but in time it galvanized some parts of the LGBT community into community service and political action, and challenged the heterosexual community to respond compassionately. Major American motion pictures from this period that dramatized the response of individuals and communities to the AIDS crisis include An Early Frost (1985), Longtime Companion (1990), And the Band Played On (1993), Philadelphia (1993), and Common Threads: Stories from the Quilt (1989).

Publicly gay politicians have attained numerous government posts, even in countries that had sodomy laws in their recent past. Examples include Guido Westerwelle, Germany's Vice-Chancellor; Pete Buttigieg, the United States Secretary of Transportation, Peter Mandelson, a British Labour Party cabinet minister and Per-Kristian Foss, formerly Norwegian Minister of Finance.

LGBT movements are opposed by a variety of individuals and organizations. Some social conservatives believe that all sexual relationships with people other than an opposite-sex spouse undermine the traditional family[218] and that children should be reared in homes with both a father and a mother.[219][220] Some argue that gay rights may conflict with individuals' freedom of speech,[221][222] religious freedoms in the workplace,[223][224] the ability to run churches,[225] charitable organizations[226][227] and other religious organizations[228] in accordance with one's religious views, and that the acceptance of homosexual relationships by religious organizations might be forced through threatening to remove the tax-exempt status of churches whose views do not align with those of the government.[229][230][231][232] Some critics charge that political correctness has led to the association of sex between males and HIV being downplayed.[233]

Military service

U.S. President Barack Obama signs into law the Don't Ask, Don't Tell Repeal Act of 2010

Policies and attitudes toward gay and lesbian military personnel vary widely around the world. Some countries allow gay men, lesbians, and bisexual people to serve openly and have granted them the same rights and privileges as their heterosexual counterparts. Many countries neither ban nor support LGB service members. A few countries continue to ban homosexual personnel outright.

Most Western military forces have removed policies excluding sexual minority members. Of the 26 countries that participate militarily in NATO, more than 20 permit openly gay, lesbian and bisexual people to serve. Of the permanent members of the United Nations Security Council, three (United Kingdom, France and United States) do so. The other two generally do not: China bans gay and lesbian people outright, Russia excludes all gay and lesbian people during peacetime but allows some gay men to serve in wartime (see below). Israel is the only country in the Middle East region that allows openly LGB people to serve in the military.

While the question of homosexuality in the military has been highly politicized in the United States, it is not necessarily so in many countries. Generally speaking, sexuality in these cultures is considered a more personal aspect of one's identity than it is in the United States.

According to the American Psychological Association, empirical evidence fails to show that sexual orientation is germane to any aspect of military effectiveness including unit cohesion, morale, recruitment and retention.[234] Sexual orientation is irrelevant to task cohesion, the only type of cohesion that critically predicts the team's military readiness and success.[235]

Society and sociology

Public opinion

2019 Pew Global Research Poll: Should homosexuality be accepted in society? Percentage of responders that answered accept:
  0–10%
  11–20%
  21–30%
  31–40%
  41–50%
  51–60%
  61–70%
  71–80%
  81–90%
  91–100%
  No data

Societal acceptance of non-heterosexual orientations such as homosexuality is lowest in Asian, African and Eastern European countries,[236][237] and is highest in Western Europe, Australia, and the Americas. Western society has become increasingly accepting of homosexuality since the 1990s. In 2017, Professor Amy Adamczyk contended that these cross-national differences in acceptance can be largely explained by three factors: the relative strength of democratic institutions, the level of economic development, and the religious context of the places where people live.[238]

Relationships

In 2006, the American Psychological Association, American Psychiatric Association and National Association of Social Workers stated in an amicus brief presented to the Supreme Court of California: "Gay men and lesbians form stable, committed relationships that are equivalent to heterosexual relationships in essential respects. The institution of marriage offers social, psychological, and health benefits that are denied to same-sex couples. By denying same-sex couples the right to marry, the state reinforces and perpetuates the stigma historically associated with homosexuality. Homosexuality remains stigmatized, and this stigma has negative consequences. California's prohibition on marriage for same-sex couples reflects and reinforces this stigma". They concluded: "There is no scientific basis for distinguishing between same-sex couples and heterosexual couples with respect to the legal rights, obligations, benefits, and burdens conferred by civil marriage."[6]

Religion

Though the relationship between homosexuality and religion is complex, current authoritative bodies and doctrines of the world's largest religions view homosexual behaviour negatively. This can range from quietly discouraging homosexual activity, to explicitly forbidding same-sex sexual practices among adherents and actively opposing social acceptance of homosexuality. Some teach that homosexual desire itself is sinful,[239] others state that only the sexual act is a sin,[240] while others are completely accepting of gays and lesbians.[241] Some claim that homosexuality can be overcome through religious faith and practice. On the other hand, voices exist within many of these religions that view homosexuality more positively, and liberal religious denominations may bless same-sex marriages. Some view same-sex love and sexuality as sacred, and a mythology of same-sex love can be found throughout the world.[242]

Discrimination

LGBT activists at Cologne Pride in 2015 carrying a banner with the flags of 70 countries where homosexuality is illegal

Gay bullying

Gay bullying can be the verbal or physical abuse against a person who is perceived by the aggressor to be lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, or generally queer, including persons who are actually heterosexual or of non-specific or unknown sexual orientation. In the US, teenage students heard anti-gay slurs such as "homo", "faggot" and "sissy" about 26 times a day on average, or once every 14 minutes, according to a 1998 study by Mental Health America (formerly National Mental Health Association).[243]

Heterosexism and homophobia

Protests in New York City against Uganda's Anti-Homosexuality Bill.

In many cultures, homosexual people are frequently subject to prejudice and discrimination. A 2011 Dutch study concluded that 49% of Holland's youth and 58% of youth foreign to the country reject homosexuality.[244] Similar to other minority groups they can also be subject to stereotyping. These attitudes tend to be due to forms of homophobia and heterosexism (negative attitudes, bias, and discrimination in favor of opposite-sex sexuality and relationships). Heterosexism can include the presumption that everyone is heterosexual or that opposite-sex attractions and relationships are the norm and therefore superior. Homophobia is a fear of, aversion to, or discrimination against homosexual people. It manifests in different forms, and a number of different types have been postulated, among which are internalized homophobia, social homophobia, emotional homophobia, rationalized homophobia, and others.[245] Similar is lesbophobia (specifically targeting lesbians) and biphobia (against bisexual people). When such attitudes manifest as crimes they are often called hate crimes and gay bashing.

Negative stereotypes characterize LGB people as less romantically stable and more likely to abuse children, but there is no scientific basis to such assertions. Gay men and lesbians form stable, committed relationships that are equivalent to heterosexual relationships in essential respects.[6] Sexual orientation does not affect the likelihood that people will abuse children.[246][247][248] Claims that there is scientific evidence to support an association between being gay and being a pedophile are based on misuses of those terms and misrepresentation of the actual evidence.[247]

Violence against homosexuals

In the United States, the FBI reported that 20.4% of hate crimes reported to law enforcement in 2011 were based on sexual orientation bias. 56.7% of these crimes were based on bias against homosexual men. 11.1% were based on bias against homosexual women. 29.6% were based on anti-homosexual bias without regard to gender.[249] The 1998 murder of Matthew Shepard, a gay student, is a notorious such incident in the U.S. LGBT people, especially lesbians, may become the victims of "corrective rape", a violent crime with the supposed aim of making them heterosexual. In certain parts of the world, LGBT people are also at risk of "honor killings" perpetrated by their families or relatives.[250][251][252]

In Morocco, a constitutional monarchy following Islamic laws, homosexual acts are a punishable offence. With a population hostile towards LGBT people, the country has witnessed public demonstrations against homosexuals, public denunciations of presumed homosexual individuals, as well as violent intrusions in private homes. The community in the country is exposed to additional risk of prejudice, social rejection and violence, with a greater impossibility of obtaining protection even from the police.[253]

Homosexual behavior in other animals

Roy and Silo, two New York Central Park Zoo male chinstrap penguins similar to those pictured, became internationally known when they coupled and later were given an egg that needed hatching and care, which they successfully provided.[254]

Homosexual and bisexual behaviors occur in a number of other animal species. Such behaviors include sexual activity, courtship, affection, pair bonding, and parenting,[22] and are widespread; a 1999 review by researcher Bruce Bagemihl shows that homosexual behavior has been documented in about 500 species, ranging from primates to gut worms.[22][23] Animal sexual behavior takes many different forms, even within the same species. The motivations for and implications of these behaviors have yet to be fully understood, since most species have yet to be fully studied.[255] According to Bagemihl, "the animal kingdom [does] it with much greater sexual diversity—including homosexual, bisexual and nonreproductive sex—than the scientific community and society at large have previously been willing to accept".[256] According to Bailey et al., humans and domestic sheep are the only animals conclusively proven to exhibit a homosexual orientation.[10]

A review paper by N. W. Bailey and Marlene Zuk looking into studies of same-sex sexual behaviour in animals challenges the view that such behaviour lowers reproductive success, citing several hypotheses about how same-sex sexual behavior might be adaptive; these hypotheses vary greatly among different species. Bailey and Zuk also suggest future research needs to look into evolutionary consequences of same-sex sexual behaviour, rather than only looking into origins of such behaviour.[257]

In October 2023, biologists reported studies of animals (over 1,500 different species) that found same-sex behavior (not necessarily related to human orientation) may help improve social stability by reducing conflict within the groups studied.[258][259]

See also

Notes

  1. "Definitions Related to Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity in APA Documents" (PDF). American Psychological Association. 2015. p. 6. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 April 2022. Retrieved 6 February 2020. Sexual orientation refers to the sex of those to whom one is sexually and romantically attracted. ... [It is] one's enduring sexual attraction to male partners, female partners, or both. Sexual orientation may be heterosexual, samesex (gay or lesbian), or bisexual. ... A person may be attracted to men, women, both, neither, or to people who are genderqueer, androgynous, or have other gender identities. Individuals may identify as lesbian, gay, heterosexual, bisexual, queer, pansexual, or asexual, among others. ... Categories of sexual orientation typically have included attraction to members of one's own sex (gay men or lesbians), attraction to members of the other sex (heterosexuals), and attraction to members of both sexes (bisexuals). While these categories continue to be widely used, research has suggested that sexual orientation does not always appear in such definable categories and instead occurs on a continuum .... Some people identify as pansexual or queer in terms of their sexual orientation, which means they define their sexual orientation outside of the gender binary of 'male' and 'female' only.
  2. Eric B. Shiraev; David A. Levy (2016). Cross-Cultural Psychology: Critical Thinking and Contemporary Applications, Sixth Edition. Taylor & Francis. p. 216. ISBN 978-1134871315. Archived from the original on 24 November 2021. Retrieved 15 September 2021. Sexual orientation refers to romantic or sexual attraction to people of a specific sex or gender. ... Heterosexuality, along with bisexuality and homosexuality are at least three main categories of the continuum of sexual orientation. ... Homosexuality is a romantic or sexual attraction between persons of the same sex or gender.
  3. James R. Lehman; Kristine Diaz; Henry Ng; Elizabeth M. Petty; Meena Thatikunta; Kristen Eckstrand, eds. (2019). The Equal Curriculum: The Student and Educator Guide to LGBTQ Health. Springer Nature. p. 5. ISBN 978-3030240257. Archived from the original on 24 November 2021. Retrieved 15 September 2021. Homosexual, literally meaning "same sex", is used as an adjective to describe same-sex or same-gender attraction. ... The term introduces ambiguity because is often applied as an identity label to a person or group based on their behaviors, not because of self-identified sexual orientation or sexual desires. ... in addition to having potentially negative connotations, homosexual is unclear as to what group of people it describes...
  4. "General Definitions". LGBT Resource Center. Retrieved 4 August 2023.
  5. "Sexual orientation, homosexuality and bisexuality". American Psychological Association. Archived from the original on 8 August 2013. Retrieved 10 August 2013.
  6. "Case No. S147999 in the Supreme Court of the State of California, In re Marriage Cases Judicial Council Coordination Proceeding No. 4365... – APA California Amicus Brief — As Filed" (PDF). p. 30. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 January 2020. Retrieved 21 December 2010.
  7. Frankowski BL; American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Adolescence (June 2004). "Sexual orientation and adolescents". Pediatrics. 113 (6): 1827–32. doi:10.1542/peds.113.6.1827. PMID 15173519. Archived from the original on 20 March 2013. Retrieved 18 September 2012.
  8. Gail Wiscarz Stuart (2014). Principles and Practice of Psychiatric Nursing. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 502. ISBN 978-0323294126. Archived from the original on 30 November 2016. Retrieved 11 February 2016. No conclusive evidence supports any one specific cause of homosexuality; however, most researchers agree that biological and social factors influence the development of sexual orientation.
  9. Gloria Kersey-Matusiak (2012). Delivering Culturally Competent Nursing Care. Springer Publishing Company. p. 169. ISBN 978-0826193810. Archived from the original on 30 November 2016. Retrieved 10 February 2016. Most health and mental health organizations do not view sexual orientation as a 'choice.'
  10. Bailey JM, Vasey PL, Diamond LM, Breedlove SM, Vilain E, Epprecht M (2016). "Sexual Orientation, Controversy, and Science". Psychological Science in the Public Interest. 17 (21): 45–101. doi:10.1177/1529100616637616. PMID 27113562.
  11. LeVay, Simon (2017). Gay, Straight, and the Reason Why: The Science of Sexual Orientation. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199752966. Archived from the original on 22 October 2020. Retrieved 27 July 2019.
  12. Balthazart, Jacques (2012). The Biology of Homosexuality. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199838820. Archived from the original on 26 January 2021. Retrieved 27 July 2019.
  13. "Submission to the Church of England's Listening Exercise on Human Sexuality". The Royal College of Psychiatrists. Archived from the original on 16 October 2015. Retrieved 13 June 2013.
  14. Robinson, B. A. (2010). "Divergent beliefs about the nature of homosexuality". Religious Tolerance.org. Archived from the original on 10 May 2019. Retrieved 12 September 2011.
  15. "'Therapies' to change sexual orientation lack medical justification and threaten health". Pan American Health Organization. Archived from the original on 23 May 2012. Retrieved 26 May 2012.
  16. "Resolution on Appropriate Affirmative Responses to Sexual Orientation Distress and Change Efforts". American Psychological Association. 2009. Archived from the original on 23 April 2022. Retrieved 18 August 2022.
  17. "Psychological practices that attempt to change sexual orientation: Position statement". Australian Psychological Society. Archived from the original on 12 November 2020. Retrieved 28 January 2020.
  18. LeVay, Simon (1996). Queer Science: The Use and Abuse of Research into Homosexuality Archived 13 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine. Cambridge: The MIT Press ISBN 0-262-12199-9
  19. "Same-sex Behavior Seen in Nearly All Animals, Review Finds". ScienceDaily. Archived from the original on 18 June 2009. Retrieved 9 March 2018.
  20. "1,500 animal species practice homosexuality. The Medical News, 23 October 2006". Archived from the original on 10 February 2011.
  21. Sommer, Volker & Paul L. Vasey (2006), Homosexual Behaviour in Animals, An Evolutionary Perspective. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. ISBN 0-521-86446-1
  22. (Bagemihl 1999)
  23. Harrold, Max (16 February 1999). "Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity". The Advocate, reprinted in Highbeam Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on 20 May 2011. Retrieved 10 September 2007.
  24. [19][20][21][22][23]
  25. Sexual Orientation Archived 26 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine. American Psychiatric Association.
  26. Room, Adrian (1986). A Dictionary of True Etymologies. Routledge & Kegan Paul. p. 84. ISBN 978-0710203403.
  27. Statt, David A. (2004). A Student's Dictionary of Psychology. Psychology Press. p. 93. ISBN 978-1841693422.
  28. Endres, Nikolai (2004). "Kertbeny, Károly Mária (1824-1882)" (PDF). glbtq Encyclopedia. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 January 2022. Retrieved 22 January 2022.
  29. "Karl-Maria Kertbeny: The Coinage and Dissemination of the Term", glbtq.com, archived from the original on 27 September 2012, retrieved 12 June 2012
  30. Feray Jean-Claude; Herzer Manfred (1990). "Homosexual Studies and Politics in the 19th Century: Karl Maria Kertbeny". Journal of Homosexuality. 19 (1): 23–47. doi:10.1300/j082v19n01_02. PMID 2187922.
  31. "Krafft-Ebing, Richard von (1840–1902)". glbtq.com. Archived from the original on 9 April 2012.
  32. "Psychopathia Sexualis". Kino.com. Archived from the original on 4 October 2007. Retrieved 7 September 2007.
  33. "GLAAD Media Reference Guide - Glossary of Terms: LGBTQ". GLAAD. 24 February 2022. Archived from the original on 23 April 2022. Retrieved 18 August 2022.
  34. "gay". Oxford Dictionaries. Archived from the original on 27 August 2016. Retrieved 7 August 2015. (Of a person, especially a man) homosexual.
  35. Johnson, Marguerite; Ryan, Terry, November 5- (2005). Sexuality in Greek and Roman society and literature : a sourcebook. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-203-64582-6. OCLC 252815648.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  36. "Lesbian | Define Lesbian at Dictionary.com". Dictionary.reference.com. Archived from the original on 7 March 2016. Retrieved 24 August 2010.
  37. "UNAIDS: Men who have sex with men" (PDF). UNAIDS. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 March 2012. Retrieved 4 October 2012.
  38. Younger, John G. (2005). Sex in the ancient world from A to Z (1st published. ed.). London: Routledge. p. 38. ISBN 0-415-24252-5.
  39. "'I don't want a poofter to play me in a film': Sir Stirling Moss is embroiled in homophobia row after 'offensive' comments". The Independent. 14 March 2013. Archived from the original on 10 August 2022. Retrieved 10 August 2022.
  40. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin. 2000. ISBN 0-618-70172-9.
  41. Spears, Richard A. (2007). "Fag". Dictionary of American Slang and Colloquial Expressions. Archived from the original on 27 February 2016. Retrieved 4 October 2012.
  42. Dalzell, Tom, ed. (25 July 2008). The Routledge Dictionary of Modern American Slang and Unconventional English. Routledge. p. 1104. doi:10.4324/9780203895139. ISBN 978-0-203-89513-9.
  43. "Dictionary of Sexual Terms". Sex-lexis.com. Archived from the original on 15 October 2004. Retrieved 4 October 2012.
  44. Taylor, Marvin J. "Queer Things from Old Closets: Libraries Gay and Lesbian Studies – Queer Theory" (PDF). Association of College and Research Libraries. Archived (PDF) from the original on 16 January 2016. Retrieved 4 October 2012.
  45. eds, Marc Wolinsky (1993). Gays and the military: Joseph Steffan versus the United States ([Online-Ausg.]. ed.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. pp. 49–55. ISBN 0691033072. Archived from the original on 18 August 2022. Retrieved 15 September 2021.
  46. eds, Marc Wolinsky ... (1993). Gays and the military: Joseph Steffan versus the United States ([Online-Ausg.]. ed.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. pp. 40–48. ISBN 0691033072. Archived from the original on 18 August 2022. Retrieved 15 September 2021.
  47. Murray, Stephen O. (2000). Homosexualities. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 394. ISBN 9780226551944. Archived from the original on 18 August 2022. Retrieved 15 September 2021.
  48. Denise Winterman (18 March 2008). "How 'gay' became children's insult of choice". BBC News. Archived from the original on 13 February 2009. Retrieved 4 October 2012.
  49. "GLAAD Media Reference Guide – Terms To Avoid". GLAAD. 9 September 2011. Archived from the original on 20 April 2012. Retrieved 1 December 2014.
  50. Hubbard, Thomas K. (2003). "Introduction". Homosexuality in Greece and Rome: a Sourcebook of Basic Documents. University of California Press. p. 1. ISBN 0520234308. The term "homosexuality" is itself problematic when applied to ancient cultures, inasmuch as neither Greek nor Latin possesses any one word covering the same semantic range as the modern concept. The term is adopted in this volume not out of any conviction that a fundamental identity exists between ancient and modern practices or self-conceptions, but as a convenient shorthand linking together a range of different phenomena involving same-gender love and/or sexual activity. To be sure, classical antiquity featured a variety of discrete practices in this regard, each of which enjoyed differing levels of acceptance depending on the time and place.
  51. Larson, Jennifer (6 September 2012). "Introduction". Greek and Roman Sexualities: A Sourcebook. Bloomsbury Academic. p. 15. ISBN 978-1441196859. There is no Greek or Latin equivalent for the English word 'homosexual', although the ancients did not fail to notice some individuals preferred same-sex partners.
  52. Buxton, Richard (2004). "Same-Sex Eroticism". The Complete World of Greek Mythology. London: Thames and Hudson. p. 174. ISBN 0500251215. As scholars have increasingly come to recognize, the ancient Greek world did not know of the modern 'life-style' category-distinction between homosexuality and heterosexuality, according to which those terms are used to designate contrasting psychological or behavioral profiles.
  53. Buxton, Richard (2004). The Complete World of Greek Mythology. London: Thames and Hudson. pp. 148–149. ISBN 0500251215. Readers of Plato's dialogues will be familiar with the cultural pattern according to which adolescent Greek males bonded with older men in temporary homoerotic relationships. It is misleading to describe such couples as 'homosexuals', if that term is meant to designate a person whose sexual orientation is same sex for life. In Greek society the normal assumption would have been that the younger partner would, in a later phasde in life, go on to marry and reproduce.
  54. Norton, Rictor (2016). Myth of the Modern Homosexual. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 9781474286923. Archived from the original on 11 May 2021. Retrieved 27 July 2019. The author has made adapted and expanded portions of this book available online as A Critique of Social Constructionism and Postmodern Queer Theory Archived 30 March 2019 at the Wayback Machine.
  55. Boswell, John (1989). "Revolutions, Universals, and Sexual Categories" (PDF). In Duberman, Martin Bauml; Vicinus, Martha; Chauncey, George Jr. (eds.). Hidden From History: Reclaiming the Gay and Lesbian Past. Penguin Books. pp. 17–36. S2CID 34904667. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2019.
  56. Gnuse, Robert K. (May 2015). "Seven Gay Texts: Biblical Passages Used to Condemn Homosexuality". Biblical Theology Bulletin. SAGE Publications on behalf of Biblical Theology Bulletin Inc. 45 (2): 68–87. doi:10.1177/0146107915577097. ISSN 1945-7596. S2CID 170127256.
  57. Koenig, Harold G.; Dykman, Jackson (2012). Religion and Spirituality in Psychiatry. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 43. ISBN 9780521889520. the overwhelming majority of Christian churches have maintained their positions that homosexual behavior is sinful
  58. Plato; Saunders, Trevor J. (1970). The laws. Harmondsworth, Eng.: Penguin. p. 340. ISBN 0-14-044222-7. OCLC 94283. ... sow illegitimate and bastard seed in courtesans, or sterile seed in males in defiance of nature.
  59. Plato, Phaedrus in the Symposium
  60. Williams, Craig A. (1999). Roman homosexuality : ideologies of masculinity in classical antiquity. Oxford. p. 60. ISBN 0-19-511300-4. OCLC 55720140.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  61. (Foucault 1986)
  62. Hubbard Thomas K (22 September 2003). "Review of David M. Halperin, How to Do the History of Homosexuality.". Bryn Mawr Classical Review.
  63. Halperin, David M. (1990). One Hundred Years of Homosexuality: And Other Essays on Greek Love. New York: Routledge. pp. 41–42. ISBN 0-415-90097-2.
  64. Ruse, Michael (2005). Honderich, Ted (ed.). The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 399. ISBN 0-19-926479-1. Archived from the original on 11 May 2021. Retrieved 15 September 2021.
  65. Murray, Stephen; Roscoe, Will (1998). Boy Wives and Female Husbands: Studies of African Homosexualities. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-23829-0.
  66. Evans-Pritchard, E. E. (1970). "Sexual Inversion among the Azande". American Anthropologist. 72 (6): 1428–1434. doi:10.1525/aa.1970.72.6.02a00170. S2CID 162319598.
  67. Pablo, Ben (2004). "Latin America: Colonial". glbtq.com. Archived from the original on 11 December 2007. Retrieved 1 August 2007.
  68. Murray, Stephen (2004). "Mexico". In Claude J. Summers (ed.). glbtq: An Encyclopedia of Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, Transgender, and Queer Culture. glbtq.com. Archived from the original on 2 November 2007. Retrieved 1 August 2007.
  69. Sigal, Pete (2003). Infamous Desire: Male Homosexuality in Colonial Latin America. The University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226757049.
  70. Anghiera, Pietro Martire d'; Torres Asensio, Joaquín. (2012). Décadas del nuevo mundo (in Spanish). Valladolid. ISBN 978-84-9001-301-4. OCLC 1057902726.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)Coello de la Rosa, Alexandre (23 June 2001). ""Good Indians", "Bad Indians", "What Christians?": The Dark Side of the New World in Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés (1478–1557)". Archived from the original on 29 May 2010. Retrieved 18 August 2022.
  71. "'Sodomites' in Canada before 1841 – The Drummer's Revenge". The Drummer's Revenge. 19 August 2007. Archived from the original on 14 January 2016. Retrieved 14 September 2015.
  72. "The End to the Death Penalty for "Sodomy" in Canada – The Drummer's Revenge". The Drummer's Revenge. 9 September 2007. Archived from the original on 17 March 2016. Retrieved 14 September 2015.
  73. "Trudeau: 'There's no place for the state in the bedrooms of the nation'". CBC News. Archived from the original on 3 January 2018. Retrieved 9 August 2021.
  74. "Egan v. Canada". Supreme Court of Canada. 25 May 1995. Archived from the original on 20 August 2021.
  75. Civil Marriage Act, SC 2005, c. 33
  76. "SPARTACUS Gay Travel Index 2019". 25 February 2019. Archived from the original on 13 August 2021. Retrieved 9 August 2021.
  77. "FORBES LGBTQ+ Danger Index 2019". Forbes. 21 October 2020. Archived from the original on 14 January 2021. Retrieved 9 August 2021.
  78. "LGBTQ+ Travel Safety – 150 Best & Worst Countries Ranked (2021)". Asher & Lyric. Archived from the original on 10 September 2021. Retrieved 9 August 2021.
  79. Kang, Wenqing. Obsession: male same-sex relations in China, 1900–1950, Hong Kong University Press. Page 2
  80. Song Geng (2004). The fragile scholar: power and masculinity in Chinese culture. Hong Kong University Press. p. 144. ISBN 978-962-209-620-2. Archived from the original on 26 February 2021. Retrieved 16 June 2015.
  81. Hinsch, Bret. (1990). Passions of the Cut Sleeve. University of California Press. pp.77-78.
  82. Kang, Wenqing. Obsession: male same-sex relations in China, 1900–1950, Hong Kong University Press. Page 3
  83. Penrose, Walter (2001). Hidden in History: Female Homoeroticism and Women of a "Third Nature" in the South Asian Past, Journal of the History of Sexuality 10.1 (2001), p.4
  84. Plato, Laws, 636D & 835E
  85. (Boswell 1980)
  86. Morales, Manuel Sanz; Mariscal, Gabriel Laguna (2003). "The Relationship between Achilles and Patroclus according to Chariton of Aphrodisias". The Classical Quarterly. 53 (1): 292–295. doi:10.1093/cq/53.1.292. ISSN 0009-8388. JSTOR 3556498. Archived from the original on 14 March 2021. Retrieved 8 November 2020.
  87. Douglas Harper (2001). "Lesbian". Online Etymology Dictionary. Archived from the original on 2 July 2017. Retrieved 7 February 2009.
  88. Douglas Harper (2001). "Sapphic". Online Etymology Dictionary. Archived from the original on 2 July 2017. Retrieved 7 February 2009.
  89. Denys Page, Sappho and Alcaeus, Oxford UP, 1959, pp.142–146.
  90. Campbell, David A., ed. (1982). "Introduction". Greek Lyric I:Sappho and Alcaeus. Cambridge, Mass. pp. xi–xii. ISBN 0-674-99157-5. OCLC 8805576. Her way of life has been the subject of much speculation. Her poetry gives unmistakable evidence of strong homosexual feelings, and this was used by later writers for inferences about her character and indeed her profession: cf. the Oxyrhynchus biography: 'she has been accused by some of being irregular in her ways and a woman-lover'; or the Suda: ' she got a bad name for her impure friendship towards Atthis, Telesippa and Megara'; Ovid made her speak of her low reputation, and about the same time Didymus Bronze-Guts addressed himself to the question, 'Was Sappho a prostitute or not?', and Horace spoke ambiguously of 'masculine Sappho'. Voices were raised in defence of her character: a commentator inferred from her poetry that she was 'a good housekeeper and industrious'. The case-history is complicated by the evidence, usually neglected, that she was married and spoke lovingly of her daughter in her poetry, and by the story, however it arose, that she died of unrequited love for Phaon.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  91. Rocke, Michael, (1996), Forbidden Friendships: Homosexuality and male Culture in Renaissance Florence, ISBN 0-19-512292-5
  92. Ruggiero, Guido, (1985), The Boundaries of Eros, ISBN 0-19-503465-1
  93. Kurtz, Lester R. (1999). Encyclopedia of violence, peace, & conflict. Academic Press. p. 140. ISBN 0-12-227010-X. Archived from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 16 June 2015.
  94. Gladfelder, Hal (May 2006) In Search of Lost Texts: Thomas Cannon's 'Ancient and Modern Pederasty Investigated and Exemplified", Institute of Historical Research
  95. Published in two parts:
  96. Ellis, Havelock; Symonds, John Addington (1975), Sexual Inversion, Arno Press, ISBN 0-405-07363-1 (reprint)
  97. El-Rouayheb, Khaled (2005). Before Homosexuality in the Arab-Islamic World, 1500–1800. The University of Chicago Press. p. 2. ISBN 0-226-72988-5.
  98. "The five most improved places for gay tolerance". The Independent. London. 17 September 2008. Archived from the original on 31 March 2019. Retrieved 29 May 2009. Israel is the only Middle-Eastern country to support gay rights legislation, and the country attracts gay people from Palestine and Lebanon.
  99. James Kirchick. "Was Arafat Gay?". Out.
  100. "The world's most gay-friendly places". Calgary Herald. 29 June 2011.
  101. Grant, Anthony (2 July 2010). "Gay Tel Aviv". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 30 June 2017. Retrieved 19 October 2012.
  102. Steven Eke (28 July 2005). "Iran 'must stop youth executions'". BBC News. Archived from the original on 24 August 2017. Retrieved 21 October 2010.
  103. "7 countries still put people to death for same-sex acts". ILGA. Archived from the original on 29 October 2009. Retrieved 24 August 2010.
  104. Fathi, Nazila (30 September 2007). "Despite Denials, Gays Insist They Exist, if Quietly, in Iran". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 18 April 2009. Retrieved 1 October 2007.
  105. Nahavandi and Bomati, illustration opposite p.162
  106. Leick, Gwendolyn (2013) [1994]. Sex and Eroticism in Mesopotamian Literature. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-92074-7. Archived from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 10 November 2017.
  107. Roscoe, Will; Murray, Stephen O. (1997). Islamic Homosexualities: Culture, History, and Literature. New York: New York University Press. pp. 65–66. ISBN 0-8147-7467-9. Archived from the original on 10 March 2021. Retrieved 15 September 2021.
  108. Gay Rights Or Wrongs: A Christian's Guide to Homosexual Issues and Ministry, by Mike Mazzalonga, 1996, p.11
  109. The Nature of Homosexuality, Erik Holland, page 334, 2004
  110. Pritchard, p.181.
  111. Herdt, Gilbert H. (1984), Ritualized Homosexuality in Melanesia, University of California Press, pp. 128–136, ISBN 0-520-08096-3
  112. "Kinsey's Heterosexual-Homosexual Rating Scale". The Kinsey Institute. Archived from the original on 10 May 2016. Retrieved 8 September 2011.
  113. Mary Zeiss Stange; Carol K. Oyster; Jane E. Sloan (2011). Encyclopedia of Women in Today's World. Sage Pubns. p. 2016. ISBN 978-1-4129-7685-5. Archived from the original on 14 September 2020. Retrieved 17 December 2011.
  114. Sinclair, Karen, About Whoever: The Social Imprint on Identity and Orientation, NY, 2013 ISBN 9780981450513
  115. Rosario, M.; Schrimshaw, E.; Hunter, J.; Braun, L. (2006). "Sexual identity development among lesbian, gay, and bisexual youths: Consistency and change over time". Journal of Sex Research. 43 (1): 46–58. doi:10.1080/00224490609552298. PMC 3215279. PMID 16817067.
  116. Ross, Michael W.; Essien, E. James; Williams, Mark L.; Fernandez-Esquer, Maria Eugenia. (2003). "Concordance Between Sexual Behavior and Sexual Identity in Street Outreach Samples of Four Racial/Ethnic Groups". Sexually Transmitted Diseases. American Sexually Transmitted Diseases Association. 30 (2): 110–113. doi:10.1097/00007435-200302000-00003. PMID 12567166. S2CID 21881268.
    • Bailey, J. Michael; Vasey, Paul; Diamond, Lisa; Breedlove, S. Marc; Vilain, Eric; Epprecht, Marc (2016). "Sexual Orientation, Controversy, and Science". Psychological Science in the Public Interest. 17 (2): 45–101. doi:10.1177/1529100616637616. PMID 27113562. Archived from the original on 11 June 2020. Retrieved 29 September 2019. Sexual fluidity is situation-dependent flexibility in a person's sexual responsiveness, which makes it possible for some individuals to experience desires for either men or women under certain circumstances regardless of their overall sexual orientation....We expect that in all cultures the vast majority of individuals are sexually predisposed exclusively to the other sex (i.e., heterosexual) and that only a minority of individuals are sexually predisposed (whether exclusively or non-exclusively) to the same sex.
    • Dennis Coon; John O. Mitterer (2012). Introduction to Psychology: Gateways to Mind and Behavior with Concept Maps and Reviews. Cengage Learning. p. 372. ISBN 978-1111833633. Retrieved 18 February 2016. Sexual orientation is a deep part of personal identity and is usually quite stable. Starting with their earliest erotic feelings, most people remember being attracted to either the opposite sex or the same sex. ... The fact that sexual orientation is usually quite stable doesn't rule out the possibility that for some people sexual behavior may change during the course of a lifetime.
    • Eric Anderson; Mark McCormack (2016). "Measuring and Surveying Bisexuality". The Changing Dynamics of Bisexual Men's Lives. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 47. ISBN 978-3-319-29412-4. Archived from the original on 24 August 2021. Retrieved 22 June 2019. [R]esearch suggests that women's sexual orientation is slightly more likely to change than men's (Baumeister 2000; Kinnish et al. 2005). The notion that sexual orientation can change over time is known as sexual fluidity. Even if sexual fluidity exists for some women, it does not mean that the majority of women will change sexual orientations as they age – rather, sexuality is stable over time for the majority of people.
  117. "Appropriate Therapeutic Responses to Sexual Orientation" (PDF). American Psychological Association. 2009. pp. 63, 86. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 June 2013. Retrieved 3 February 2015.
  118. "Relationship Satisfaction and Commitment". Eurekalert.org. 22 January 2008. Archived from the original on 7 May 2010. Retrieved 24 August 2010.
  119. Duffy, S.M/; C.E. Rusbult (1985). "Satisfaction and commitment in homosexual and heterosexual relationships". Journal of Homosexuality. 12 (2): 1–23. doi:10.1300/J082v12n02_01. PMID 3835198. Archived from the original on 19 October 2017. Retrieved 29 July 2009.
  120. Charlotte, Baccman; Per Folkesson; Torsten Norlander (1999). "Expectations of romantic relationships: A comparison between homosexual and heterosexual men with regard to Baxter's criteria". Social Behavior and Personality. 27 (4): 363–374. doi:10.2224/sbp.1999.27.4.363. Archived from the original on 23 April 2019. Retrieved 4 October 2012.
  121. "Coming Out: A Journey". Utahpridecenter.org. Archived from the original on 25 August 2009. Retrieved 22 July 2012.
  122. In a joint statement with other major American medical organizations, the APA says that "different people realize at different points in their lives that they are heterosexual, gay, lesbian, or bisexual". "Just the Facts About Sexual Orientation & Youth: A Primer for Principals, Educators and School Personnel". American Academy of Pediatrics, American Counseling Association, American Association of School Administrators, American Federation of Teachers, American Psychological Association, American School Health Association, The Interfaith Alliance, National Association of School Psychologists, National Association of Social Workers, National Education Association. 1999. Archived from the original on 7 August 2007. Retrieved 28 August 2007.
  123. "The Coming Out Continuum", Human Rights Campaign, archived from the original on 2 November 2007, retrieved 4 May 2007
  124. Neumann, Caryn E (2004), "Outing", glbtq.com, archived from the original on 9 June 2007
  125. Maggio, Rosalie (1991), The Dictionary of Bias-Free Usage: A Guide to Nondiscriminatory Language, Oryx Press, p. 208, ISBN 0-89774-653-8
  126. Tatchell, Peter (23 April 2007), "Outing hypocrites is justified", New Statesman, archived from the original on 14 September 2008, retrieved 4 May 2007
  127. "Asexuality, Attraction, and Romantic Orientation". LGBTQ Center. 1 July 2021. Retrieved 2 August 2023.
  128. Team, Gayety (24 September 2022). "What Does It Mean To Be Homoromantic?". Gayety. Retrieved 2 August 2023.
  129. Caceres, C.; Konda, K.; Pecheny, M.; Chatterjee, A.; Lyerla, R. (2006). "Estimating the number of men who have sex with men in low and middle income countries". Sexually Transmitted Infections. 82 (Suppl. III): iii3–iii9. doi:10.1136/sti.2005.019489. PMC 2576725. PMID 16735290.
  130. International HIV/AIDS Alliance (2003). Between Men: HIV/STI Prevention For Men Who Have Sex With Men (PDF). OCLC 896761012. Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 June 2021. Retrieved 5 October 2020.
  131. Billy JO, Tanfer K, Grady WR, Klepinger DH (1993). "The sexual behavior of men in the United States". Family Planning Perspectives. 25 (2): 52–60. doi:10.2307/2136206. JSTOR 2136206. PMID 8491287.
  132. Bogaert AF (September 2004). "The prevalence of male homosexuality: the effect of fraternal birth order and variations in family size". Journal of Theoretical Biology. 230 (1): 33–7. Bibcode:2004JThBi.230...33B. doi:10.1016/j.jtbi.2004.04.035. PMID 15275997. Bogaert argues that: "The prevalence of male homosexuality is debated. One widely reported early estimate was 10% (e.g., Marmor, 1980; Voeller, 1990). Some recent data provided support for this estimate (Bagley and Tremblay, 1998), but most recent large national samples suggest that the prevalence of male homosexuality in modern Western societies, including the United States, is lower than this early estimate (e.g., 1–2% in Billy et al., 1993; 2–3% in Laumann et al., 1994; 6% in Sell et al., 1995; 1–3% in Wellings et al., 1994). It is of note, however, that homosexuality is defined in different ways in these studies. For example, some use same-sex behavior and not same-sex attraction as the operational definition of homosexuality (e.g., Billy et al., 1993); many sex researchers (e.g., Bailey et al., 2000; Bogaert, 2003; Money, 1988; Zucker and Bradley, 1995) now emphasize attraction over overt behavior in conceptualizing sexual orientation." (p.33) Also: "...the prevalence of male homosexuality (in particular, same-sex attraction) varies over time and across societies (and hence is a "moving target") in part because of two effects: (1) variations in fertility rate or family size; and (2) the fraternal birth order effect. Thus, even if accurately measured in one country at one time, the rate of male homosexuality is subject to change and is not generalizable over time or across societies." (p.33)
  133. Fay RE, Turner CF, Klassen AD, Gagnon JH (January 1989). "Prevalence and patterns of same-gender sexual contact among men". Science. 243 (4889): 338–48. Bibcode:1989Sci...243..338F. doi:10.1126/science.2911744. PMID 2911744.
  134. Sell RL, Wells JA, Wypij D (June 1995). "The prevalence of homosexual behavior and attraction in the United States, the United Kingdom and France: results of national population-based samples". Archives of Sexual Behavior. 24 (3): 235–48. doi:10.1007/BF01541598. PMID 7611844. S2CID 12929812.
  135. Hope, Debra A, ed. (2009). Contemporary Perspectives on Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Identities. Nebraska Symposium on Motivation. Vol. 54. doi:10.1007/978-0-387-09556-1. ISBN 978-0-387-09555-4.
  136. Smith, David M.; Gates, Gary J. (22 August 2001). "Gay and Lesbian Families in the United States: Same-Sex Unmarried Partner Households" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 January 2011. Retrieved 26 January 2011.
  137. Gary Gates (April 2011). "How Many People are Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender?". The Williams Institute. Archived from the original on 21 July 2017. Retrieved 12 May 2014.
  138. "Sexual Orientation and Health Among U.S. Adults: National Health Interview Survey, 2013." Archived 4 December 2018 at the Wayback Machine CDC. 15 July 2014. 15 July 2014. p.3.
  139. Gates, Gary J.; Newport, Frank (18 October 2012). "Special Report: 3.4% of U.S. Adults Identify as LGBT". Gallup. Archived from the original on 2 September 2017. Retrieved 13 January 2015.
  140. "Gallup survey claims 3.4 percent in U.S. are LGBT". CBS News. Associated Press. 18 October 2012. Archived from the original on 19 January 2015. Retrieved 13 January 2015.
  141. Jayson, Sharon (19 October 2012). "New survey: 3.4% of U.S. adults are LGBT". USA Today. Archived from the original on 5 July 2017. Retrieved 13 January 2015.
  142. Newport, Frank (22 May 2018). "In U.S., Estimate of LGBT Population Rises to 4.5%". Gallup. Archived from the original on 22 May 2018. Retrieved 17 June 2018.
  143. "Measuring Sexual Identity: Evaluation Report, 2010". Office for National Statistics (UK). 23 September 2010. Archived from the original on 16 January 2016. Retrieved 1 April 2012.
  144. Black, Dan; Gates, Gary; Sanders, Seth; Taylor, Lowell (2000). "Demographics of the Gay and Lesbian Population in the United States: Evidence from Available Systematic Data Sources". Demography. 37 (2): 139–154. doi:10.2307/2648117. JSTOR 2648117. PMID 10836173.
  145. Lamberg, L. (1998). "Gay Is Okay With APA—Forum Honors Landmark 1973 Events". JAMA. 280 (6): 497–499. doi:10.1001/jama.280.6.497. PMID 9707127. Archived from the original on 3 May 2013. Retrieved 29 September 2012.
  146. American Psychological Association: Appropriate Therapeutic Responses to Sexual Orientation Archived 15 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine
  147. "Stop discrimination against homosexual men and women". World Health Organisation – Europe. 17 May 2011. Archived from the original on 9 July 2012. Retrieved 8 March 2012.
  148. "The decision of the World Health Organisation 15 years ago constitutes a historic date and powerful symbol for members of the LGBT community". ILGA. Archived from the original on 30 October 2009. Retrieved 24 August 2010.
  149. Shoffman, Marc (17 May 2006), "Homophobic stigma – A community cause", PinkNews.co.uk, archived from the original on 19 April 2007, retrieved 4 May 2007
  150. The New York Times: Homosexuality Not an Illness, Chinese Say Archived 22 July 2016 at the Wayback Machine
  151. Royal College of Psychiatrists: "Royal College of Psychiatrists response to comments on Nolan Show regarding homosexuality as a mental disorder". Archived from the original on 11 June 2008. Retrieved 28 June 2009.
  152. Cabaj, R; Stein, T. eds. Textbook of Homosexuality and Mental Health, p.421
  153. Sandfort, T; et al. (eds.). "Chapter 2". Lesbian and Gay Studies: An Introductory, Interdisciplinary Approach.
  154. "Answers to Your Questions: For a Better Understanding of Sexual Orientation & Homosexuality" (PDF). American Psychological Association. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 January 2014. Retrieved 20 December 2010.
  155. "Expert affidavit of Gregory M. Herek, PhD" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 August 2010. Retrieved 24 August 2010.
  156. Royal College of Psychiatrists: Statement from the Royal College of Psychiatrists' Gay and Lesbian Mental Health Special Interest Group Archived 27 May 2010 at the Wayback Machine
  157. Australian Psychological Society: Sexual orientation and homosexuality Archived 17 July 2009 at the Wayback Machine
  158. "Statement of the American Psychological Association" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 14 May 2011. Retrieved 24 August 2010.
  159. "LGBT-Sexual Orientation: What is Sexual Orientation?" Archived 28 June 2014 at the Wayback Machine, the official web pages of APA. Accessed 9 April 2015
  160. "Resolution on Appropriate Affirmative Responses to Sexual Orientation Distress and Change Efforts". apa.org. Archived from the original on 22 April 2018. Retrieved 25 April 2018.
  161. Perrin, E. C. (2002). Sexual Orientation in Child and Adolescent Health Care. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. ISBN 0-306-46761-5.
  162. Ngun, TC; Vilain, E (2014). "The biological basis of human sexual orientation: is there a role for epigenetics?". Adv Genet. 86: 167–84. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-800222-3.00008-5. PMID 25172350.
  163. Balter, Michael (9 October 2015). "BEHAVIORAL GENETICS. Can epigenetics explain homosexuality puzzle?". Science. 350 (6257): 148. doi:10.1126/science.350.6257.148. ISSN 1095-9203. PMID 26450189.
  164. "Epigenetic Algorithm Accurately Predicts Male Sexual Orientation | ASHG". ashg.org. 8 October 2015. Archived from the original on 20 March 2019. Retrieved 21 January 2019.
  165. Mitchum, Robert (12 August 2007), "Study of gay brothers may find clues about sexuality", Chicago Tribune, archived from the original on 23 October 2008, retrieved 4 May 2007
  166. "How much is known about the origins of homosexuality?". Church Times. 16 November 2007. Archived from the original on 6 April 2010. Retrieved 24 August 2010.
  167. Zietsch, B; Morley, K; Shekar, S; Verweij, K; Keller, M; Macgregor, S; Wright, M; Bailey, J; Martin, N (2008). "Genetic factors predisposing to homosexuality may increase mating success in heterosexuals". Evolution and Human Behavior. Elsevier BV. 29 (6): 424–433. doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2008.07.002. ISSN 1090-5138.
  168. David P. Barash (19 November 2012). "The Evolutionary Mystery of Homosexuality". The Chronicle of Higher Education. Archived from the original on 13 November 2017. Retrieved 13 November 2017.
  169. Iemmola, Francesca; Camperio Ciani, Andrea (2009). "New Evidence of Genetic Factors Influencing Sexual Orientation in Men: Female Fecundity Increase in the Maternal Line". Archives of Sexual Behavior. Springer Netherlands. 38 (3): 393–9. doi:10.1007/s10508-008-9381-6. PMID 18561014. S2CID 508800.
  170. "Marriage of Same-Sex Couples – 2006 Position Statement Canadian Psychological Association" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 April 2009. Retrieved 2 September 2012.
  171. "Elizabeth Short, Damien W. Riggs, Amaryll Perlesz, Rhonda Brown, Graeme Kane: Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender (LGBT) Parented Families – A Literature Review prepared for The Australian Psychological Society" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2011. Retrieved 5 November 2010.
  172. "Brief of the American Psychological Association, The California Psychological Association, The American Psychiatric Association, and the American Association for Marriage and Family Therapy as Amici Curiae in support of plaintiff-appellees" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 April 2015. Retrieved 21 December 2010.
  173. Pawelski JG, Perrin EC, Foy JM, et al. (July 2006). "The effects of marriage, civil union, and domestic partnership laws on the health and well-being of children". Pediatrics. 118 (1): 349–64. doi:10.1542/peds.2006-1279. PMID 16818585.
  174. Herek GM (September 2006). "Legal recognition of same-sex relationships in the United States: a social science perspective" (PDF). The American Psychologist. 61 (6): 607–21. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.61.6.607. PMID 16953748. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 June 2010.
  175. Biblarz, Timothy J.; Stacey, Judith (2010). "How Does the Gender of Parents Matter". Journal of Marriage and Family. 72: 3–22. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2009.00678.x.
  176. "Brief presented to the Legislative House of Commons Committee on Bill C38 by the Canadian Psychological Association" (PDF). 2 June 2005. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 October 2012. Retrieved 2 September 2012.
  177. DONALDSON JAMES, SUSAN (23 June 2011). "Census 2010: One-Quarter of Gay Couples Raising Children". United States: ABC News. Archived from the original on 1 November 2019. Retrieved 11 July 2013. Still, more than 80 percent of the children being raised by gay couples are not adopted, according to Gates.
  178. Stacey J, Biblarz TJ (2001). "(How) Does the Sexual Orientation of Parents Matter?" (PDF). American Sociological Review. 66 (2): 159–183. doi:10.2307/2657413. JSTOR 2657413. Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 September 2011. Retrieved 11 July 2013. This may be partly due to genetic and family socialization processes, but what sociologists refer to as "contextual effects" not yet investigated by psychologists may also be important...even though children of lesbian and gay parents appear to express a significant increase in homoeroticism, the majority of all children nonetheless identify as heterosexual, as most theories across the essentialistt" to "social constructionist" spectrum seem (perhaps too hastily) to expect.
  179. American Psychological Association Lesbian & Gay Parenting Archived 23 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine
  180. "MSM in Africa: highly stigmatized, vulnerable and in need of urgent HIV prevention". Aidsportal.org. Archived from the original on 13 July 2007. Retrieved 24 August 2010.
  181. "UNAIDS: Men who have sex with men". UNAIDS. Archived from the original (asp) on 18 June 2008. Retrieved 24 July 2008.
  182. Greenwood, Cseneca; Mario Ruberte (9 April 2004). "African American Community and HIV (Slide 14 mentions TG women)". East Bay AIDS Education and Training Center. Archived from the original (ppt) on 10 September 2008. Retrieved 24 July 2008.
  183. Operario D, Burton J, Underhill K, Sevelius J (January 2008). "Men who have sex with transgender women: challenges to category-based HIV prevention". AIDS Behav. 12 (1): 18–26. doi:10.1007/s10461-007-9303-y. PMID 17705095. S2CID 31831055.
  184. Operario D, Burton J (April 2000). "HIV-related tuberculosis in a transgender network—Baltimore, Maryland, and New York City area, 1998–2000". MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 49 (15): 317–20. PMID 10858008. Archived from the original on 19 October 2017. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
  185. Young RM, Meyer IH (July 2005). "The trouble with "MSM" and "WSW": erasure of the sexual-minority person in public health discourse". Am J Public Health. 95 (7): 1144–9. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2004.046714. PMC 1449332. PMID 15961753.
  186. "STI Epi Update: Oral Contraceptive and Condom Use". Public Health Agency of Canada. 23 April 1998. Archived from the original on 27 September 2006. Retrieved 11 July 2007.
  187. Cber / Fda. "FDA Policy on Blood Donations from Men Who Have Sex with Other Men". Food and Drug Administration. Archived from the original on 11 October 2007. Retrieved 24 August 2010.
  188. Mravack, Sally A. (July 2006)."Primary Care for Lesbians and Bisexual Women", American Family Physician 74 (2) pp.279–286.
  189. Catalyst, Sr. Kitty, Staff of San Francisco City Clinic; "Reading This Might Save Your Ass"; 2001, San Francisco HIV Prevention and STD Prevention and Control.
  190. Men Like Us: The GMHC Complete Guide to Gay Men's Sexual, Physical, and Emotional Well-being; Wolfe, Daniel; Gay Men's Health Crisis, Inc; Published by Ballantine Books, 2000; ISBN 0-345-41496-9, 9780345414960.
  191. Schlager, Neil, ed. (1998). Gay & Lesbian Almanac. St. James Press. ISBN 1-55862-358-2, p.152.
  192. Meyer, Ilan H. (September 2003). "Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: conceptual issues and research evidence". Psychological Bulletin. 129 (5): 674–97. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.129.5.674. PMC 2072932. PMID 12956539.
  193. "Black gay men, lesbians, have fewer mental disorders than whites, says Mailman School of PH study". Eurekalert.org. Archived from the original on 7 May 2010. Retrieved 24 August 2010.
  194. Gibson, P. (1989), "Gay and Lesbian Youth Suicide", in Fenleib, Marcia R. (ed.), Report of the Secretary's Task Force on Youth Suicide, United States Government Printing Office, ISBN 0-16-002508-7
  195. Balsam, Kimberly F.; Esther D. Rothblum (June 2005). "Victimization Over the Life Span: A Comparison of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Heterosexual Siblings" (PDF). Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 73 (3): 477–487. doi:10.1037/0022-006x.73.3.477. PMID 15982145. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 March 2007.
  196. Caruso, Kevin, "Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, and Transgender Suicide", Suicide.org, archived from the original on 30 April 2007, retrieved 4 May 2007
  197. Wilson, Jacque (2 July 2008). "24-hour help for gay youth". CNN. Archived from the original on 30 December 2014. Retrieved 26 July 2015.
  198. Shyamantha, Asokan (11 December 2013). "India's Supreme Court turns the clock back with gay sex ban". Reuters. Archived from the original on 16 December 2013. Retrieved 23 December 2013.
  199. "Supreme Court of India scraps ban on homosexuality with its judgment on Section 377". NDTV. 9 September 2018. Archived from the original on 7 September 2018. Retrieved 7 September 2018.
  200. Aengus Carroll; Lucas Paoli Itaborahy (May 2015). "State-Sponsored Homophobia: A World Survey of Laws: criminalisation, protection and recognition of same-sex love" (PDF). International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex association. Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 April 2019. Retrieved 5 April 2019.
  201. correspondent, Hannah Ellis-Petersen South-east Asia (28 March 2019). "Brunei introduces death by stoning as punishment for gay sex". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 14 March 2021. Retrieved 28 March 2019.
  202. "Brunei says it won't enforce gay death penalty after backlash". Reuters. 6 May 2019. Archived from the original on 14 August 2019. Retrieved 19 August 2019.
  203. Mendos, Lucas Ramón (2019). State-Sponsored Homophobia 2019 (PDF). Geneva: ILGA. p. 359. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 December 2019. Retrieved 4 February 2021.
  204. "UAE Penal Code" (PDF). ADJD.gov.ae. Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 April 2020. Retrieved 1 February 2020.
  205. "Here are the 10 countries where homosexuality may be punished by death". The Washington Post. 16 June 2016. Archived from the original on 24 August 2017. Retrieved 25 August 2017.
  206. Donovan, James M; American Association of Law Libraries Standing Committee on Lesbian and Gay Issues (2007), Sexual Orientation and the Law, William S. Hein & Co., ISBN 978-0-8377-0166-0 § 5:17
  207. "Executive Order 13087 of May 28, 1998" (PDF), Federal Register, vol. 63, no. 105, 2 June 1998, archived from the original (PDF) on 18 November 2004, retrieved 7 September 2007
  208. Ashton v. Civiletti, 613 F.2d 923, 20 Fair Empl. Prac. Cas. (BNA) 1601, 21 Empl. Prac. Dec. (CCH) paragraph 30297 (D.C. Cir. 1979)
  209. Kelly v. City of Oakland, 198 F.3d 779, 81 Fair Empl. Prac. Cas. (BNA) 1455, 77 Empl. Prac. Dec. (CCH) paragraph 46281 (9th Cir. 1999)
  210. Oncale v. Sundowner Offshore Services, Inc., 523 U.S. 75 (1998).
  211. Price Waterhouse v. Hopkins, 490 U.S. 228 (1989).
  212. Renter's Rights Against Sexual Orientation Discrimination, archived from the original on 10 December 2007, retrieved 7 September 2007
  213. "State Hate Crime Laws" (PDF), Anti-Defamation League, June 2006, archived from the original (PDF) on 14 June 2007, retrieved 4 May 2007
  214. "President Barack Obama Signs Hate Crimes Legislation into Law". HRC. 28 October 2009. Archived from the original on 28 October 2009. Retrieved 24 August 2010.
  215. Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union
  216. Salt Lake City, UT (20 October 2004). "First Presidency Message on Same-Gender Marriage". Newsroom.lds.org. Archived from the original on 3 June 2008. Retrieved 24 August 2010.
  217. Brownback, Sam (9 July 2004). "Defining Marriage Down – We need to protect marriage". National Review. Archived from the original on 1 June 2008.
  218. "The Family: A Proclamation to the World". Lds.org. 23 September 1995. Archived from the original on 3 June 2019. Retrieved 24 August 2010.
  219. Gove, Michael (24 December 2002). "I'd like to say this, but it might land me in prison". The Times. London. Archived from the original on 18 September 2008. Retrieved 27 June 2008.
  220. "Christian group likens Tory candidate review to witch hunt". CBC News. 28 November 2007. Archived from the original on 5 June 2008.
  221. Moldover, Judith (31 October 2007). "Employer's Dilemma: When Religious Expression and Gay Rights Cross". New York Law Journal. Archived from the original on 28 September 2008. Retrieved 27 June 2008.
  222. Ritter, Bob (January–February 2008). "Collision of religious and gay rights in the workplace". Humanist. Archived from the original on 5 March 2012.
  223. "Bishop loses gay employment case". BBC News Online. 18 July 2007. Archived from the original on 30 September 2017. Retrieved 27 June 2008.
  224. Beckford, Martin (5 June 2008). "Catholic adoption service stops over gay rights". The Daily Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on 10 January 2022.
  225. LeBlanc, Steve (10 March 2006). "Catholic Charities to halt adoptions over issue involving gays". The Boston Globe. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 14 September 2009.
  226. Mercer, Greg (24 April 2008). "Christian Horizons rebuked: Employer ordered to compensate fired gay worker, abolish code of conduct". The Record. Archived from the original on 6 July 2008. Retrieved 21 August 2009.
  227. Gallagher, Maggie (15 May 2006). "Banned in Boston: The coming conflict between same-sex marriage and religious liberty". Vol. 011, no. 33. Archived from the original on 16 May 2006. Retrieved 27 June 2008.
  228. Capuzzo, Jill (14 August 2007). "Church Group Complains of Civil Union Pressure". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 30 June 2017. Retrieved 8 February 2017.
  229. Capuzzo, Jill (18 September 2007). "Group Loses Tax Break Over Gay Union Issue". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 28 June 2017. Retrieved 31 March 2010.
  230. Moore, Carrie (15 May 2008). "LDS Church expresses disappointment in California gay marriage decision". Deseret News. Archived from the original on 1 June 2009. Retrieved 21 August 2009.
  231. Chin, James (12 March 2007). "The risks in hiding the HIV/AIDS truth". Business Day. Vol. 9. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016.
  232. "Proceedings of the American Psychological Association, Incorporated, for the legislative year 2004. Minutes of the meeting of the Council of Representatives July 28 & 30, 2004, Honolulu, HI". American Psychological Association. Archived from the original on 15 February 2010. Retrieved 18 November 2004.
  233. American Psychological Association: [Report of the APA Joint Divisional Task Force on Sexual Orientation & Military Service]
  234. "Anti-LGBT views still prevail, global survey finds". The Guardian. 17 May 2016. Archived from the original on 18 May 2019. Retrieved 4 August 2019.
  235. "Religious Belief and National Belonging in Central and Eastern Europe". Pew Research Center. 10 May 2017. Archived from the original on 13 September 2019. Retrieved 4 August 2019.
  236. Adamczyk, Amy (2017). Cross-National Public Opinion about Homosexuality: Examining Attitudes across the Globe. University of California Press. pp. 3–7. ISBN 9780520963597. Archived from the original on 28 July 2020. Retrieved 12 February 2017.
  237. "Charge #1 and specifications preferred by the Presbytery of Southern California against The Rev. C. Lee Irons" (PDF). Presbytery of Southern California of the Orthodox Presbyterian Church. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 July 2008. Retrieved 27 June 2008. claiming that homosexuality is an unchosen "condition," rather than a sin of the heart, ... contradicts the teaching of Scripture that both the desire and the act are sin.
  238. Sex and Society – Volume 3 – Page 824
  239. The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Religion and Social Justice – Page 543, Michael D. Palmer, Stanley M. Burgess – 2012
  240. Cabezón 1992, p. vii.
  241. "Mental Health American, Bullying and Gay Youth". "Mental Health America" formerly National Mental Health Association. Archived from the original on 14 April 2012. Retrieved 27 June 2012.
  242. "Half of young Dutch people reject homosexuality". Expatica/COC. Archived from the original on 1 December 2011. Retrieved 9 January 2012.
  243. "Riddle Homophobia Scale". Archived from the original on 27 April 2021. Retrieved 27 April 2021.
  244. Michael Lamb, PhD: Affidavit – United States District Court for the District of Massachusetts (2009) Archived 25 December 2010 at the Wayback Machine
  245. Gregory M. Herek, PhD: Facts About Homosexuality and Child Molestation Archived 19 April 2010 at the Wayback Machine
  246. American Psychological Association: Lesbian & Gay Parenting Archived 23 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine
  247. "Victims", FBI, archived from the original on 8 July 2016, retrieved 26 July 2013
  248. "'Honor killings' target Turkey's LGBT community". CBS News. 12 October 2011. Archived from the original on 13 February 2021. Retrieved 23 December 2013.
  249. Di Piero Russo (5 August 2011). "Sei il disonore della famiglia" e accoltella il fratello gay". bari.repubblica.it. Archived from the original on 24 December 2013. Retrieved 23 December 2013.
  250. "Father confesses to killing his own son in landmark homosexual murder case". hurriyetdailynews.com. 25 May 2013. Archived from the original on 19 October 2017. Retrieved 23 December 2013.
  251. "Morocco Situation of LGBT Persons" (PDF). Danish Immigration Service. Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 August 2019. Retrieved 21 March 2019.
  252. Smith, Dinitia (7 February 2004). "Love That Dare Not Squeak Its Name". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 29 November 2010. Retrieved 10 September 2007.
  253. Gordon, Dennis (10 April 2007). "'Catalogue of Life' reaches one million species". National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research. Archived from the original on 13 July 2007. Retrieved 10 September 2007.
  254. "Gay Lib for the Animals: A New Look At Homosexuality in Nature – 2/1/1999 – Publishers Weekly". Publishersweekly.com. Archived from the original on 29 July 2012. Retrieved 2 September 2012.
  255. Bailey, N. W.; Zuk, M. (2009). "Same-sex sexual behavior and evolution" (PDF). Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 24 (8): 439–446. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2009.03.014. PMID 19539396. Archived (PDF) from the original on 14 May 2013. Retrieved 21 April 2013.
  256. Zimmer, Carl (3 October 2023). "Same-Sex Behavior Evolved in Many Mammals to Reduce Conflict, Study Suggests - But the researchers cautioned that the work could not shed much light on sexual orientation in humans. + comment". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 4 October 2023. Retrieved 4 October 2023.
  257. Gómez, José M.; et al. (3 October 2023). "The evolution of same-sex sexual behaviour in mammals". Nature. 14 (5719). doi:10.1038/s41467-023-41290-x. Archived from the original on 4 October 2023. Retrieved 4 October 2023.

References

Books

1980s
1990s
2000s

Journal articles

Online articles

This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.