Lance Formation

Lance Formation
Lance Formation
Stratigraphic range: Maastrichtian; ~
	Badlands in the Lance Formation along Cow Creek near the type locality. Niobrara County, Wyoming
Type	Sedimentary
Underlies	Fort Union Formation
Overlies	Meeteetse Formation
Thickness	up to 600 metres (1,970 ft)
Lithology
Primary	Sandstone, siltstone, shale
Location
Region	Wyoming
Country	United States
Type section
Named for	Lance Creek, Wyoming

The Lance (Creek) Formation is a division of Late Cretaceous (dating to about 69 – 66 Ma) rocks in the western United States. Named after Lance Creek, Wyoming, the microvertebrate fossils and dinosaurs represent important components of the latest Mesozoic vertebrate faunas. The Lance Formation is Late Maastrichtian in age (Lancian land mammal age), and shares much fauna with the Hell Creek Formation of Montana and North Dakota, the Frenchman Formation of southwest Saskatchewan, and the lower part of the Scollard Formation of Alberta.

Lance Formation – stratigraphy

The Lance Formation occurs above the Baculites clinolobatus ammonite marine zone in Wyoming, the top of which has been dated to about 69 million years ago, and extends to the K-Pg boundary, 66 million years ago. However, the characteristic land vertebrate fauna of the Lancian age (which take its name from this formation) is only found in the upper strata of the Lance, roughly corresponding to the thinner equivalent formations such as the Hell Creek Formation, the base of which has been estimated at 66.8 million years old.[1]

Description

The formation is described by W.G. Pierce as thick-bedded, buff-colored sandstone, and drab to green shale. It is Upper Cretaceous in age.[2]

The formation varies in thickness from about 90 m (300 ft.) in North Dakota, to almost 600 m (2,000 ft.) in parts of Wyoming.

Depositional environment

The Lance Formation was laid down by streams, on a coastal plain along the edge of the Western Interior Seaway. The climate was subtropical; there was no cold season and probably ample precipitation.

Paleontology

At least tens of thousands of Late Cretaceous vertebrate remains have been recovered from the Lance Formation. Fossils ranging from microscopic elements to extensive bonebeds, with nearly complete, sometimes articulated dinosaur skeletons, have been found.[3] Most other animals known from the formation are freshwater animals, and some are exclusively freshwater forms (for instance, frogs and salamanders). However, marine fossils are also found in the formation, suggesting that the sea was nearby. The bird fauna is mainly composed of orders still existing today.

Coelurosaurs

UCMP 143274 (Caenagnathidae?)[4][5]

Color key

Taxon	Reclassified taxon	Taxon falsely reported as present	Dubious taxon or junior synonym	Ichnotaxon	Ootaxon	Morphotaxon

Notes
Uncertain or tentative taxa are in small text; ~~crossed out~~ taxa are discredited.

Birds

Birds reported from the Lance Formation
Genus	Species	Location	Stratigraphic Position	Material	Notes	Images
Apatornis	A. retusus				Reclassified as Palintropus retusus
Ceramornis	C. major			UCMP 53959 (holotype), a partial coracoid[6]	A possible charadriiform bird
Cimolopteryx	C. petra				Reclassified as Lamarqueavis minima[7]
	C. rara			YPM 1805 (holotype), a partial coracoid[6]	A charadriiform
	C. retusa				Reclassified as Palintropus retusus
	C. minima				Reclassified as Lamarqueavis minima[7]
"Cimolopteryx"	"C." maxima			UCMP 53973 (holotype), a partial coracoid[6]	A charadriiform bird, not necessarily closely related to Cimolopteryx.[6]
Graculavus	G. augustus			AMNH 25223, a partial humerus[8]	A possible charadriiform[8]
Lamarqueavis	L. minima			UCMP 53976 (holotype), a partial coracoid[7]	A charadriiform.[7]
Lamarqueavis	L. petra			AMNH 21911 (holotype), a partial coracoid[7]	A charadriiform.[7]
Lonchodytes	L. estesi			UCMP 53954 (holotype), a partial tarsometatarsus[8]	A possible procellariiform[8]
"Lonchodytes"	"L." pterygius			UCMP 53961 (holotype), a partial carpometacarpus[8]	A possible charadriiform.[8]
"Palaeotringa"	"P." vetus			ANSP 13361 (holotype), a partial tibiotarsus[8] AMNH 25221, a partial tibiotarsus[8]	A bird similar to gruids, idiornithids and presbyornithids.[8]
Palintropus	P. retusus			YPM 513 (holotype), a partial coracoid[9]	A basal ornithuromorph belonging to Ambiortiformes.[9]
Potamornis	P. skutchi			UCMP 73103 (holotype), a quadrate[10] tarsometatarsus?[10][11]	A hesperornithiform possibly also present in the Hell Creek Formation.[10]
Torotix	T. clemensi			UCMP 53958, a partial humerus[12]	A possible presbyornithid.[12]
Unnamed presbyornithid	Indeterminate			AMNH 21929, a partial scapula[8] AMNH 22603, a partial scapula[8] YPM 868, a partial scapula[8] AMNH 22602, a partial sternum[8]	A presbyornithid[8]
Unnamed enantiornithean	Unnamed			USNM 2909, a partial metatarsal and pedal phalanges[13]	An enantiornithean, previously referred to "Ornithomimus" minutus[13]
Unnamed avian	Indeterminate			UCMP 53960, two partial neck vertebrae[8]	An indeterminate avian[8]
Unnamed phalacrocoracid	Indeterminate			AMNH 25272, a femur[8]	A possible phalacrocoracid.[8]
"Unnamed ornithurine A"[6]	Indeterminate			UCMP 53962, a partial coracoid[6] UCMP 53963, a partial coracoid[6] AMNH uncatalogued, a partial coracoid[6]	Originally thought to belong to Cimolopteryx rara, but probably a new species. Also present in the Frenchman Formation.[6]
"Unnamed ornithurine C"[6]	Indeterminate			YPM PU 17020, a partial coracoid[6]	Also present in the Hell Creek Formation.[6]
"Unnamed ornithurine E"[6]	Indeterminate			USNM 181923, a partial coracoid[6] USNM 13011, a partial coracoid[6]	Also present in the Hell Creek Formation.[6]
"Unnamed ornithurine F"[6]	Indeterminate			UCMP 53957, a partial coracoid[6] ACM 12359, a partial coracoid[6]	Originally thought to belong to "Cimolopteryx" maxima, but probably a new species.[6]

Other coelurosaurs

Miscellaneous coelurosaurs of the Lance Formation
Genus	Species	Location	Stratigraphic Position	Material	Notes	Images
Aublysodon	A. amplus			Teeth, type specimen	Dubious tyrannosaurids probably synonymous with Tyrannosaurus rex	Ornithomimus Pectinodon bakkeri tooth Tyrannosaurus
Aublysodon	A. cristatus			Teeth, type specimen
"Ornithomimus"	"O." sedens			"Sacrum and fragmentary illium"[14] type specimen	An ornithomimid.
Paronychodon	P. caperatus			Teeth, type specimen	A troodontid
Pectinodon	P. bakkeri			Teeth, type specimen	A troodontid
Tyrannosaurus	T. rex			Several partial specimens and teeth	A tyrannosaurid originally identified from the Hell Creek Formation. Also found in the Denver, Ferris, Frenchman, Javelina, Livingston, McRae, North Horn, Scollard, and Willow Creek Formations. Synonyms with type specimens from this formation include Dynamosaurus imperiosus and Manospondylus gigas.[15]
Nanotyrannus	N. lancensis				Synonym of Tyrannosaurus.

Ankylosaurs

Ankylosaurs of the Lance Formation
Genus	Species	Location	Stratigraphic Position	Material	Notes	Images
Ankylosaurus	A. magniventris [16]	Wyoming		More than 70 osteoderms and a tooth	An ankylosaurid, originally identified from the Hell Creek Formation.	Ankylosaurus Denversaurus Edmontonia
Denversaurus	D. schlessmani[17]	South Dakota		A nearly complete skull, several teeth and osteoderms.	A nodosaurid
Edmontonia	E. sp.[18]	Wyoming		Teeth	A nodosaurid. Fossils have been unearthed in the Hell Creek Formation, the Ferris Formation, the Dinosaur Park Formation, the Horseshoe Canyon Formation, and the Denver Formation.[19][20][21][22][23]
"Palaeoscincus"	"P. latus"[18]	Wyoming		Teeth	Probably a nodosaurid, but the teeth could also belong to the Pachycephalosauridae.[24]

Marginocephalians

Marginocephalians reported from the Lance Formation
Genus	Species	Location	Stratigraphic Position	Material	Notes	Images
Agathaumas	A. sylvestris			"Partial sacrum and pelvis,"[25] type specimen.	A dubious ceratopsid probably synonymous with Triceratops horridus	Leptoceratops gracilis Nedoceratops hatcheri Pachycephalosaurus wyomingensis Stygimoloch spinifer Torosaurus latus Triceratops horridus
Leptoceratops	L. gracilis				A ceratopsian
Nedoceratops	N. hatcheri			"[One] skull,"[25] type specimen.	A ceratopsid possibly synonymous with Triceratops horridus.[26] Synonyms include Diceratops hatcheri and Diceratus hatcheri.
Pachycephalosaurus	P. wyomingensis			Fragmentary specimens including the type specimen.	A pachycephalosaur. Synonyms with type specimens from this formation include Troodon wyomingensis.
"Palaeoscincus"	"P." latus			"Tooth."[24]	A dubious pachycephalosaur, previously classified as the ankylosaur Palaeoscincus
Stygimoloch	S. spinifer				A pachycephalosaur possibly synonymous with Pachycephalosaurus wyomingensis[27]
Torosaurus	T. latus			Several specimens including the type specimen.	A ceratopsid possibly synonymous with Triceratops horridus.[26] Torosaurus gladius, with type specimen from this formation, is a synonym. Also present in the Frenchman and Hell Creek Formations.
Triceratops	T. horridus T. Indet.			"Partial skull and skeleton,"[25] type specimen	A ceratopsid, also found in the Evanston, Frenchman, Hell Creek, Laramie, and Scollard Formations. Synonyms with type specimens from this formation include T. ingens and T. sulcatus.[25]

Ornithopods

Indeterminate lambeosaurinae fossils have been found in the Lance Formation.[28]

Ornithopods of the Lance Formation
Genus	Species	Location	Stratigraphic Position	Abundance	Notes	Images
Edmontosaurus	E. annectens			Skull, skeletons, including the type specimen, "mummy", and a bone bed.[29]	A hadrosaurid. Synonyms from this formation include Anatosaurus annectens and Claosaurus annectens. Also found in the Frenchman, Hell Creek, Laramie and Scollard Formations.	Edmontosaurus annectens Thescelosaurus neglectus
Thescelosaurus	T. neglectus			Well-preserved skeleton, type specimen	A thescelosaurid.[30] Also found in the Frenchman, Hell Creek, Laramie and Scollard Formations.
Thespesius	T. occidentalis			Teeth, vertebrae, toe bone (including type specimen)	A dubious hadrosaurid possibly synonymous with E. annectens
"Trachodon"	"T." longiceps			One partial jaw (YPM 616), type specimen	A dubious hadrosaurid possibly synonymous with E. annectens

Other vertebrates

Other land vertebrates include pterosaurs (e.g. cf. Azhdarcho), crocodiles, champsosaurs, lizards, snakes, turtles, frogs and salamanders.

Remains of fishes and mammals have also been found in the Lance Formation.

References

Lehman, T. M., Mcdowell, F. W., & Connelly, J. N. (2006). First isotopic (U-Pb) age for the Late Cretaceous Alamosaurus vertebrate fauna of West Texas, and its significance as a link between two faunal provinces. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 26(4), 922–928.
Pierce, W.G., 1997, Geologic map of the Cody 1 degree x 2 degrees quadrangle, northwestern Wyoming: U.S. Geological Survey, Miscellaneous Geologic Investigations Map I-2500, scale 1:250000.
Silver, Mark (August 2, 2014) "The Dinosaur Surveyors" The American Surveyor Frederick Maryland
Stidham, 1998
Dyke, GJ; Mayr, G. (1999). "Did parrots exist in the Cretaceous period?". Nature 399 (6734): 317–318. doi:10.1038/20583.
Nicholas R. Longrich (2011). "Titanoceratops ouranous, a giant horned dinosaur from the Late Campanian of New Mexico". Cretaceous Research. 32 (3): 264–276. doi:10.1016/j.cretres.2010.12.007.
Federico L. Agnolin (2010). "An avian coracoid from the Upper Cretaceous of Patagonia, Argentina". Stvdia Geologica Salmanticensia. 46 (2): 99–119.
Hope, 2002
Longrich, N. 2009. An ornithurine-dominated avifauna from the Belly River Group (Campanian, Upper Cretaceous) of Alberta, Canada. Cretaceous Research, 30(1): 161–177.
Elzanowski, Paul and Stidham, 2001. An avian quadrate from the Late Cretaceous Lance Formation of Wyoming. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 20(4): 712–719.
"Table 11.1," in Weishampel, et al. (2004). Page 215.
Olson, S.L. and Feduccia, A. 1980. Presbyornis and the origin of the Anseriformes (Aves: Charadriomorphae). Smithsonian Contributions to Paleobiology no. 323.
Chiappe, L. M., and Walker, C. A. (2002) Skeletal morphology and systematics of the Cretaceous Euenantiornithes (Ornithothoraces: Enantiornithes): In: Mesozoic Birds, above the heads of Dinosaurs, University of California Press, 240–267.
"Table 6.1," in Weishampel, et al. (2004). Page 139.
Dalman, Sebastian (October 2013). "New Examples of Tyrannosaurus rex from the Lance Formation of Wyoming, United States". Bulletin of the Peabody Museum of Natural History. 54 (2): 241–254. doi:10.3374/014.054.0202. S2CID 128608668. Retrieved 16 November 2020.
The Dinosauria 2nd Edition (David B. Weishampel, Halszka Osmólska and Peter Dodson), p. 584, Dinosaur Distribution (DAVID B. WEISHAMPEL, PAUL M. BARRETT, RODOLFO A. CORIA, JEAN LE LOEUFF, XU XING, ZHAO XIJIN, ASHOK SAHNI, ELIZABETH M. P. GOMANI, CHRISTOPHER R. NOTO)
Bakker, R.T. (1988). Review of the Late Cretaceous nodosauroid Dinosauria: Denversaurus schlessmani, a new armor-plated dinosaur from the Latest Cretaceous of South Dakota, the last survivor of the nodosaurians, with comments on Stegosaur-Nodosaur relationships. Hunteria 1(3):1–23.(1988).
The Dinosauria 2nd Edition (David B. Weishampel, Halszka Osmólska and Peter Dodson), p. 585, Dinosaur Distribution (DAVID B. WEISHAMPEL, PAUL M. BARRETT, RODOLFO A. CORIA, JEAN LE LOEUFF, XU XING, ZHAO XIJIN, ASHOK SAHNI, ELIZABETH M. P. GOMANI, CHRISTOPHER R. NOTO)
Lyson, Tyler R.; Longrich, Nicholas R. (22 April 2011). "Spatial niche partitioning in dinosaurs from the latest cretaceous (Maastrichtian) of North America". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 278 (1709): 1158–1164. doi:10.1098/rspb.2010.1444. PMC 3049066. PMID 20943689.
Carpenter, Kenneth; Young, D. Bruce (1 January 2002). "Late Cretaceous dinosaurs from the Denver Basin, Colorado". Rocky Mountain Geology. 37 (2): 237–254. doi:10.2113/11. Retrieved 19 November 2020.
Lillegraven, Jason A.; Eberle, Jaelyn J. (July 1999). "Vertebrate faunal changes through Lancian and Puercan time in southern Wyoming". Journal of Paleontology. Cambridge University Press. 73 (4): 691–710. doi:10.1017/S0022336000032510. S2CID 133072078.
Dale A. Russel; Makoto Manabe (2002). "Synopsis of the Hell Creek (uppermost Cretaceous) dinosaur assemblage". In Nichols, Douglas J.; Hartman, Joseph Herbert; Johnson, Kirk R. (eds.). The Hell Creek Formation and the Cretaceous-Tertiary Boundary in the Northern Great Plains: An Integrated Continental Record of the End of the Cretaceous · Issue 361. Geological Society of America. p. 170. ISBN 9780813723617. Retrieved 19 November 2020.
Carpenter, Kenneth; Breithaupt, Brent (September 2, 1986). "Latest Cretaceous Occurrence of Nodosaurid Ankylosaurs (Dinosauria, Ornithischia) in Western North America and the Gradual Extinction of the Dinosaurs". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 6 (3): 251–257. doi:10.1080/02724634.1986.10011619. JSTOR 4523098. Retrieved 24 April 2021.
"Table 17.1," in Weishampel, et al. (2004). Page 368.
"Table 23.1," in Weishampel, et al. (2004). Page 496.
Scannella, J. and Horner, J.R. (2010). "Torosaurus Marsh, 1891, is Triceratops Marsh, 1889 (Ceratopsidae: Chasmosaurinae): synonymy through ontogeny." Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 30(4): 1157 – 1168. doi:10.1080/02724634.2010.483632
Horner J.R. and Goodwin, M.B. (2009). "Extreme cranial ontogeny in the Upper Cretaceous Dinosaur Pachycephalosaurus." PLoS ONE, 4(10): e7626. Online full text
Wegweiser, M.; Breithaupt, B.; Badcock, L. E.; Skinner, E.; Scheffield, J. (January 2003). "DINOSAUR SKIN FOSSILS FROM THIS SIDE OF HELL, WYOMING: PALEOENVIRONMENTAL IMPLICATIONS OF AN UPPER CRETACEOUS KONSERVAT-LAGERSTATTE IN THE LANCE FORMATION". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 23: 108A.
Snyder, Keith; McLain, Matthew; Wood, Jared; Chadwick, Arthur (2020-05-21). "Over 13,000 elements from a single bonebed help elucidate disarticulation and transport of an Edmontosaurusthanatocoenosis". PLOS ONE. 15 (5): e0233182. Bibcode:2020PLoSO..1533182S. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0233182. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 7241792. PMID 32437394.
Boyd, Clint A.; Brown, Caleb M.; Scheetz, Rodney D.; Clarke, Julia A. (2009). "Taxonomic revision of the basal neornithischian taxa Thescelosaurus and Bugenasaura". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 29 (3): 758–770. doi:10.1671/039.029.0328. S2CID 84273584.

External links

Passport-In-Time Microvertebrate Fossil Project

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[javelina_age-1] Lehman, T. M., Mcdowell, F. W., & Connelly, J. N. (2006). First isotopic (U-Pb) age for the Late Cretaceous Alamosaurus vertebrate fauna of West Texas, and its significance as a link between two faunal provinces. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 26(4), 922–928.

[2] Pierce, W.G., 1997, Geologic map of the Cody 1 degree x 2 degrees quadrangle, northwestern Wyoming: U.S. Geological Survey, Miscellaneous Geologic Investigations Map I-2500, scale 1:250000.

[3] Silver, Mark (August 2, 2014) "The Dinosaur Surveyors" The American Surveyor Frederick Maryland

[4] Stidham, 1998

[5] Dyke, GJ; Mayr, G. (1999). "Did parrots exist in the Cretaceous period?". Nature 399 (6734): 317–318. doi:10.1038/20583.

[Longrich-6] Nicholas R. Longrich (2011). "Titanoceratops ouranous, a giant horned dinosaur from the Late Campanian of New Mexico". Cretaceous Research. 32 (3): 264–276. doi:10.1016/j.cretres.2010.12.007.

[lamarqueavis-7] Federico L. Agnolin (2010). "An avian coracoid from the Upper Cretaceous of Patagonia, Argentina". Stvdia Geologica Salmanticensia. 46 (2): 99–119.

[Hope-8] Hope, 2002

[longrich2009-9] Longrich, N. 2009. An ornithurine-dominated avifauna from the Belly River Group (Campanian, Upper Cretaceous) of Alberta, Canada. Cretaceous Research, 30(1): 161–177.

[potamornis-10] Elzanowski, Paul and Stidham, 2001. An avian quadrate from the Late Cretaceous Lance Formation of Wyoming. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 20(4): 712–719.

[table-11-1-215-11] "Table 11.1," in Weishampel, et al. (2004). Page 215.

[olson1980-12] Olson, S.L. and Feduccia, A. 1980. Presbyornis and the origin of the Anseriformes (Aves: Charadriomorphae). Smithsonian Contributions to Paleobiology no. 323.

[chiappe&walker2002-13] Chiappe, L. M., and Walker, C. A. (2002) Skeletal morphology and systematics of the Cretaceous Euenantiornithes (Ornithothoraces: Enantiornithes): In: Mesozoic Birds, above the heads of Dinosaurs, University of California Press, 240–267.

[table-6-1-139-14] "Table 6.1," in Weishampel, et al. (2004). Page 139.

[15] Dalman, Sebastian (October 2013). "New Examples of Tyrannosaurus rex from the Lance Formation of Wyoming, United States". Bulletin of the Peabody Museum of Natural History. 54 (2): 241–254. doi:10.3374/014.054.0202. S2CID 128608668. Retrieved 16 November 2020.

[16] The Dinosauria 2nd Edition (David B. Weishampel, Halszka Osmólska and Peter Dodson), p. 584, Dinosaur Distribution (DAVID B. WEISHAMPEL, PAUL M. BARRETT, RODOLFO A. CORIA, JEAN LE LOEUFF, XU XING, ZHAO XIJIN, ASHOK SAHNI, ELIZABETH M. P. GOMANI, CHRISTOPHER R. NOTO)

[RTB88-17] Bakker, R.T. (1988). Review of the Late Cretaceous nodosauroid Dinosauria: Denversaurus schlessmani, a new armor-plated dinosaur from the Latest Cretaceous of South Dakota, the last survivor of the nodosaurians, with comments on Stegosaur-Nodosaur relationships. Hunteria 1(3):1–23.(1988).

[Edition_p._585-18] The Dinosauria 2nd Edition (David B. Weishampel, Halszka Osmólska and Peter Dodson), p. 585, Dinosaur Distribution (DAVID B. WEISHAMPEL, PAUL M. BARRETT, RODOLFO A. CORIA, JEAN LE LOEUFF, XU XING, ZHAO XIJIN, ASHOK SAHNI, ELIZABETH M. P. GOMANI, CHRISTOPHER R. NOTO)

[19] Lyson, Tyler R.; Longrich, Nicholas R. (22 April 2011). "Spatial niche partitioning in dinosaurs from the latest cretaceous (Maastrichtian) of North America". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 278 (1709): 1158–1164. doi:10.1098/rspb.2010.1444. PMC 3049066. PMID 20943689.

[20] Carpenter, Kenneth; Young, D. Bruce (1 January 2002). "Late Cretaceous dinosaurs from the Denver Basin, Colorado". Rocky Mountain Geology. 37 (2): 237–254. doi:10.2113/11. Retrieved 19 November 2020.

[21] Lillegraven, Jason A.; Eberle, Jaelyn J. (July 1999). "Vertebrate faunal changes through Lancian and Puercan time in southern Wyoming". Journal of Paleontology. Cambridge University Press. 73 (4): 691–710. doi:10.1017/S0022336000032510. S2CID 133072078.

[22] Dale A. Russel; Makoto Manabe (2002). "Synopsis of the Hell Creek (uppermost Cretaceous) dinosaur assemblage". In Nichols, Douglas J.; Hartman, Joseph Herbert; Johnson, Kirk R. (eds.). The Hell Creek Formation and the Cretaceous-Tertiary Boundary in the Northern Great Plains: An Integrated Continental Record of the End of the Cretaceous · Issue 361. Geological Society of America. p. 170. ISBN 9780813723617. Retrieved 19 November 2020.

[23] Carpenter, Kenneth; Breithaupt, Brent (September 2, 1986). "Latest Cretaceous Occurrence of Nodosaurid Ankylosaurs (Dinosauria, Ornithischia) in Western North America and the Gradual Extinction of the Dinosaurs". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 6 (3): 251–257. doi:10.1080/02724634.1986.10011619. JSTOR 4523098. Retrieved 24 April 2021.

[table-17-1-368-24] "Table 17.1," in Weishampel, et al. (2004). Page 368.

[table-23-1-496-25] "Table 23.1," in Weishampel, et al. (2004). Page 496.

[scannella&horner2010-26] Scannella, J. and Horner, J.R. (2010). "Torosaurus Marsh, 1891, is Triceratops Marsh, 1889 (Ceratopsidae: Chasmosaurinae): synonymy through ontogeny." Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 30(4): 1157 – 1168. doi:10.1080/02724634.2010.483632

[horneretal2009-27] Horner J.R. and Goodwin, M.B. (2009). "Extreme cranial ontogeny in the Upper Cretaceous Dinosaur Pachycephalosaurus." PLoS ONE, 4(10): e7626. Online full text

[28] Wegweiser, M.; Breithaupt, B.; Badcock, L. E.; Skinner, E.; Scheffield, J. (January 2003). "DINOSAUR SKIN FOSSILS FROM THIS SIDE OF HELL, WYOMING: PALEOENVIRONMENTAL IMPLICATIONS OF AN UPPER CRETACEOUS KONSERVAT-LAGERSTATTE IN THE LANCE FORMATION". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 23: 108A.

[29] Snyder, Keith; McLain, Matthew; Wood, Jared; Chadwick, Arthur (2020-05-21). "Over 13,000 elements from a single bonebed help elucidate disarticulation and transport of an Edmontosaurusthanatocoenosis". PLOS ONE. 15 (5): e0233182. Bibcode:2020PLoSO..1533182S. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0233182. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 7241792. PMID 32437394.

[CABetal09-30] Boyd, Clint A.; Brown, Caleb M.; Scheetz, Rodney D.; Clarke, Julia A. (2009). "Taxonomic revision of the basal neornithischian taxa Thescelosaurus and Bugenasaura". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 29 (3): 758–770. doi:10.1671/039.029.0328. S2CID 84273584.