Latin declension

Latin declension is the set of patterns according to which Latin words are declined—that is, have their endings altered to show grammatical case, number and gender. Nouns, pronouns, and adjectives are declined (verbs are conjugated), and a given pattern is called a declension. There are five declensions, which are numbered and grouped by ending and grammatical gender. Each noun follows one of the five declensions, but some irregular nouns have exceptions.

Adjectives are of two kinds: those like bonus, bona, bonum 'good' use first-declension endings for the feminine, and second-declension for masculine and neuter. Other adjectives such as celer, celeris, celere belong to the third declension. There are no fourth- or fifth-declension adjectives.

Pronouns are also of two kinds, the personal pronouns such as ego 'I' and 'you (sg.)', which have their own irregular declension, and the third-person pronouns such as hic 'this' and ille 'that' which can generally be used either as pronouns or adjectivally. These latter decline in a similar way to the first and second noun declensions, but there are differences; for example the genitive singular ends in -īus or -ius instead of or -ae.

The cardinal numbers ūnus 'one', duo 'two', and trēs 'three' also have their own declensions (ūnus has genitive -īus like a pronoun). However, numeral adjectives such as bīnī 'a pair, two each' decline like ordinary adjectives.

Grammatical cases

A complete Latin noun declension consists of up to seven grammatical cases: nominative, vocative, accusative, genitive, dative, ablative and locative. However, the locative is limited to a few nouns: generally names of cities, small islands and a few other words.

The case names are often abbreviated to the first three letters, for example, "nom." for "nominative".

Order of cases

The Roman grammarian Aelius Donatus (4th century AD), whose work was used as standard throughout the Middle Ages, placed the cases in this order:

casus sunt sex: nominativus, genetivus, dativus, accusativus, vocativus, ablativus.[1].
"There are six cases: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, vocative and ablative."

This order was based on the order used by earlier Greek grammarians, with the addition of the ablative, which does not exist in Greek. The names of the cases also were mostly translated from the Greek terms, such as accusativus from the Greek αἰτῐᾱτῐκή.

This traditional order was formerly used in England, such as in The School and University Eton Latin Grammar (1861).[2] That order is still followed in most other European countries. Gildersleeve and Lodge's Latin Grammar (1895) also follow this order. More recent Latin grammars published in the United States, such as Allen and Greenough's New Latin Grammar (1903) and Wheelock's Latin (first published in 1956) follow this order except they list the vocative last.

However, in Britain and countries influenced by Britain other than the United States, the Latin cases are usually given in the following order: nominative, vocative, accusative, genitive, dative, ablative. This order was introduced in Benjamin Hall Kennedy's Latin Primer (1866), with the aim of making tables of declensions easier to recite and memorise (the first three and the last two cases having identical forms in several declensions).. It is also used in France.[3] In Rosa (1962), a song in French by the Belgian singer Jacques Brel, Brel sings the declension of "Rosa" as rosa, rosa, rosam, following the modern British order of cases.

Syncretism

Syncretism, where one form in a paradigm shares the ending of another form in the paradigm, is common in Latin. The following are the most notable patterns of syncretism:

Gender-specific

  • For pure Latin neuter nouns, the nominative, vocative, and accusative cases are identical, and the nominative, vocative, and accusative plurals all end in -a. (Both of these features are inherited from Proto-Indo-European, and so no actual syncretism is known to have happened in the historical sense, since these cases of these nouns are not known to have ever been different in the first place.)

Case-specific

  • The vocative form is always the same as the nominative in the plural, and usually the same as the nominative in the singular except for second-declension nouns ending in -us and a few nouns of Greek origin. For example, the vocative of the first-declension Aenēās is Aenēā.
  • The genitive singular is the same as the nominative plural in first-, second-, and fourth-declension non-neuter Latin nouns.
  • The dative singular is the same as the genitive singular in first- and fifth-declension pure Latin nouns.
  • The dative is always the same as the ablative in the singular in the second declension, the third-declension full i-stems (i.e. neuter i-stems, adjectives), and fourth-declension neuters.
  • The dative, ablative, and locative are always identical in the plural.
  • The locative is identical to the ablative in the 3rd, 4th and 5th declensions.
  • The nominative and accusative plurals are identical in the athematic declensions, the masculine/feminine ending in -ēs (3rd/5th declension) or -ūs (4th declension).

History of cases

Old Latin had essentially two patterns of endings. One pattern was shared by the first and second declensions, which derived from the Proto-Indo-European thematic declension. The other pattern was used by the third, fourth and fifth declensions, and derived from the athematic PIE declension.

Nouns

There are two principal parts for Latin nouns: the nominative singular and the genitive singular. Each declension can be unequivocally identified by the ending of the genitive singular (-ae, -i, -is, -ūs, -ei). The stem of the noun can be identified by the form of the genitive singular as well.

There are five declensions for Latin nouns:

First declension (a stems)

Nouns of this declension usually end in -a in the nominative singular and are mostly feminine, e.g. via, viae f. ('road') and aqua, aquae f. ('water'). There is a small class of masculine exceptions generally referring to occupations, e.g. poēta, poētae m. ('poet'), agricola, agricolae m. ('farmer'), auriga, aurigae m. ('auriga, charioteer'), pīrāta, pīrātae m. ('pirate') and nauta, nautae m. ('sailor').

The predominant letter in the ending forms of this declension is a. The nominative singular form consists of the stem and the ending -a, and the genitive singular form is the stem plus -ae.

First declension paradigm
SingularPlural
Nominative -a-ae
Vocative
Accusative -am-ās
Genitive -ae-ārum
Dative -īs
Ablative
Locative Gen.Dat.
mensa, mensae
table (f.)
poēta, poētae
poet (m.)
Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nominative mensamensaepoētapoētae
Vocative
Accusative mensammensāspoētampoētās
Genitive mensae[lower-roman 1]mensārumpoētaepoētārum
Dative mensīspoētīs
Ablative mensāpoētā
  1. The archaic genitive ending in -ai (as in aquai) occurs occasionally in Virgil and Lucretius, to evoke the style of older writers. Plus, the archaic genitive ending in -ās is used in expressions like pater familiās (also possible in conjunction with māter, fīlius and fīlia).

The locative endings for the first declension are -ae (singular) and -īs (plural), similar to the genitive singular and ablative plural, as in mīlitiae 'in war' and Athēnīs 'at Athens'.[4]

First declension Greek nouns

The first declension also includes three types of Greek loanwords, derived from Ancient Greek's alpha declension. They are declined irregularly in the singular, but sometimes treated as native Latin nouns, e.g. nominative athlēta ('athlete') instead of the original athlētēs. Archaic (Homeric) first declension Greek nouns and adjectives had been formed in exactly the same way as in Latin: nephelēgeréta Zeus ('Zeus the cloud-gatherer') had in classical Greek become nephelēgerétēs.

For full paradigm tables and more detailed information, see the Wiktionary appendix First declension.

Second declension (o stems)

The second declension is a large group of nouns consisting of mostly masculine nouns like equus, equī ('horse') and puer, puerī ('boy') and neuter nouns like castellum, castellī ('fort'). There are several small groups of feminine exceptions, including names of gemstones, plants, trees, and some towns and cities.

In the nominative singular, most masculine nouns consist of the stem and the ending -us, although some end in -er, which is not necessarily attached to the complete stem. Neuter nouns generally have a nominative singular consisting of the stem and the ending -um. However, every second-declension noun has the ending attached as a suffix to the root of the noun in the genitive singular form. The predominant letter in the ending forms of this declension is o.

Second declension paradigm
Singular Plural
MasculineNeuter MasculineNeuter
Nominative -us-um-a
Vocative -e
Accusative -um-ōs
Genitive -ōrum
Dative -īs
Ablative
Locative Gen.Dat.
Masculine
dominus, dominī
master m.
Singular Plural
Nominative dominusdominī
Vocative domine
Accusative dominumdominōs
Genitive dominīdominōrum
Dative dominōdominīs
Ablative
Neuter
bellum, bellī
war n.
Singular Plural
Nominative bellumbella
Vocative
Accusative
Genitive bellībellōrum
Locative bellīs
Dative bellō
Ablative

The locative endings for the second declension are (singular) and -īs (plural); Corinthī "at Corinth", Mediolānī "at Milan", and Philippīs "at Philippi".[5]

Second-declension -ius and -ium nouns

Nouns ending in -ius and -ium have a genitive singular in in earlier Latin, which was regularized to -iī in the later language. Masculine nouns in -ius have a vocative singular in at all stages. These forms in are stressed on the same syllable as the nominative singular, sometimes in violation of the usual Latin stress rule. For example, the genitive and vocative singular Vergilī (from Vergilius) is pronounced Vergílī, with stress on the penult, even though it is short.[6] In Old Latin, however, the vocative was declined regularly, using -ie instead, e.g. fīlie "[O] son", archaic vocative of fīlius.

There is no contraction of -iī(s) in plural forms and in the locative.

fīlius, filiī
son m.
auxilium, auxiliī
aid, help n.
Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nominative fīliusfīliīauxiliumauxilia
Vocative fīlī
Accusative fīliumfīliōs
Genitive fīliīfīliōrumauxiliīauxiliōrum
Dative fīliōfīliīsauxiliōauxiliīs
Ablative

In the older language, nouns ending with -vus, -quus and -vum take o rather than u in the nominative and accusative singular. For example, servus, servī ('slave') could be servos, accusative servom.

Second-declension -r nouns

Some masculine nouns of the second declension end in -er or -ir in the nominative singular. The declension of these nouns is identical to that of the regular second declension, except for the lack of suffix in the nominative and vocative singular.

Some (but not all) nouns in -er drop the e genitive and other cases. For example, socer, socerī ('father-in-law') keeps its e. However, the noun magister, magistrī ('(school)master') drops its e in the genitive singular.

For declension tables of second-declension nouns, see the corresponding Wiktionary appendix.

puer, puerī
boy m.
ager, agrī
field m.
vir, virī
man m.
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nominative puerpuerīageragrīvirvirī
Vocative
Accusative puerumpuerōsagrumagrōsvirumvirōs
Genitive puerīpuerōrumagrīagrōrumvirīvirōrum
(virum)
Dative puerōpuerīsagrōagrīsvirōvirīs
Ablative

The vocative puere is found but only in Plautus.[7] The genitive plural virum is found in poetry.[8]

Second-declension Greek nouns

The second declension contains two types of masculine Greek nouns and one form of neuter Greek noun. These nouns are irregular only in the singular, as are their first-declension counterparts. Greek nouns in the second declension are derived from the Omicron declension.

Some Greek nouns may also be declined as normal Latin nouns. For example, theātron can appear as theātrum.

Deus

The inflection of deus, deī ('god') is irregular. The vocative singular of deus is not attested in Classical Latin. In Ecclesiastical Latin the vocative of Deus ('God') is Deus.

In poetry, -um may substitute -ōrum as the genitive plural ending.

deus, deī
god m.
Singular Plural
Nominative deusdeī
diī
Vocative
Accusative deumdeōs
Genitive deīdeōrum
deum
Dative deōdeīs
diīs
dīs
Ablative
Virus

The Latin word vīrus (the ī indicates a long i) means "1. slimy liquid, slime; 2. poison, venom", denoting the venom of a snake. This Latin word is probably related to the Greek ῑ̓ός (ios) meaning "venom" or "rust" and the Sanskrit word विष viṣa meaning "toxic, poison".[9]

Since vīrus in antiquity denoted something uncountable, it was a mass noun. Mass nouns pluralize only under special circumstances, hence the non-existence of plural forms in the texts.[10]

In Neo-Latin, a plural form is necessary in order to express the modern concept of 'viruses', which leads to the following declension:[11][12][13]

vīrus, vīrī
poison, venom, virus n.
Singular Plural
Nominative vīrusvīra
Vocative
Accusative
Genitive vīrī[lower-roman 1]vīrōrum
Dative vīrōvīrīs
Ablative
  1. antique, heteroclitic: vīrus

Third declension

The third declension is the largest group of nouns. The nominative singular of these nouns may end in -a, -e, , , -y, -c, -l, -n, -r, -s, -t, or -x. This group of nouns includes masculine, neuter, and feminine nouns.

Consonant stems

The stem of a consonant-stem noun may be found from the genitive case by removing the ending -is. For example, the stem of pāx, pācis f. 'peace' is pāc-, the stem of flūmen, flūminis n. 'river' is flūmin-, and the stem of flōs, flōris m. 'flower' is flōr-.

Masculine, feminine and neuter nouns often have their own special nominative singular endings. For instance, many masculine nouns end in -or (amor, amōris, 'love'). Many feminine nouns end in -īx (phoenīx, phoenīcis, 'phoenix'), and many neuter nouns end in -us with an r stem in the oblique cases (onus, oneris 'burden'; tempus, temporis 'time').

Third declension paradigm
(consonant stems)
Masculine &
feminine
Neuter
SingularPlural SingularPlural
Nominative (-s)-ēs[lower-roman 1]-a
Vocative
Accusative -em
Genitive -is-um-is-um
Dative -ibus-ibus
Ablative -e-e
Locative Dat./Abl.Dat.Dat./Abl.Dat.
  1. The nominative and accusative of neuter nouns are always identical.
dux, ducis
leader m.
virtūs, virtūtis
virtue f.
nōmen, nōminis
name n.
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nominative duxducēsvirtūsvirtūtēsnōmennōmina
Vocative
Accusative ducemvirtūtem
Genitive ducisducumvirtūtisvirtūtumnōminisnōminum
Dative ducīducibusvirtūtīvirtūtibusnōminīnōminibus
Ablative ducevirtūtenōmine

The locative endings for the third declension are or -e (singular) and -ibus (plural), as in rūrī 'in the country' and Trallibus 'at Tralles'.[14]

Third declension i-stem and mixed nouns

The third declension also has a set of nouns that are declined differently. They are called i-stems. i-stems are broken into two subcategories: pure and mixed. Pure i-stems are indicated by special neuter endings. Mixed i-stems are indicated by the double consonant rule. Stems indicated by the parisyllabic rule are usually mixed, occasionally pure.

Masculine and feminine
Parisyllabic rule: Some masculine and feminine third-declension i-stem nouns have the same number of syllables in the genitive and the nominative. For example: nāvis, nāvis ('ship'); nūbēs, nūbis ('cloud'). The nominative ends in -is or -ēs.
Double consonant rule: The rest of the masculine and feminine third-declension i-stem nouns have two consonants before the -is in the genitive singular. For example: pars, partis ('part').
Neuter
Special neuter ending: Neuter third-declension i-stems have no rule. However, all of them end in -al, -ar or -e. For example: animal, animālis ('animal'); cochlear, cochleāris ('spoon'); mare, maris ('sea').

The mixed declension is distinguished from the consonant type only by having -ium in the genitive plural (and occasionally -īs in the accusative plural). The pure declension is characterized by having in the ablative singular, -ium in the genitive plural, -ia in the nominative and accusative plural neuter, and -im in the accusative singular masculine and feminine (however, adjectives have -em).

The accusative plural ending -īs is found in early Latin up to Virgil, but from the early empire onwards it was replaced by -ēs.[15]

The accusative singular ending -im is found only in a few words: always in tussis 'cough', sitis 'thirst', Tiberis 'River Tiber'; usually in secūris 'axe', turris 'tower', puppis 'poop', febris 'fever'; occasionally in nāvis 'ship'. Most nouns, however, have accusative singular -em.[16]

The ablative singular is found in nouns which have -im, and also, optionally, in some other nouns, e.g. in ignī or in igne 'in the fire'.

There are two mixed-declension neuter nouns: cor, cordis ('heart') and os, ossis ('bone'). Also, the mixed declension is used in the plural-only adjective plūrēs, plūra ('most').

Third declension paradigm
(i-stem nouns)
Masculine &
Feminine
Neuter
SingularPlural SingularPlural
Nominative -ēs-ia
Vocative
Accusative -em
-im
-ēs
-īs
Genitive -is-ium-is-ium
Dative -ibus-ibus
Ablative -e
Locative Dat./Abl.Dat.Dat./Abl.Dat.
Third declension paradigm
(mixed nouns)
Masculine &
Feminine
Neuter
SingularPlural SingularPlural
Nominative -ēs-a
Vocative
Accusative -em-ēs
-īs
Genitive -is-ium-is-ium
Dative -ibus-ibus
Ablative -e-e
Locative Dat./Abl.Dat.Dat./Abl.Dat.
turris, turris
tower f. (pure)
pars, partis
part, piece f. (mixed)
animal, animālis
animal, living being n. (pure)
Parisyllabic rule Double consonant rule Special neuter ending
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nominative turristurrēsparspartēsanimalanimālia
Vocative
Accusative turrem
turrim
turrēs
turrīs
partempartēs
partīs
Genitive turristurriumpartispartiumanimālisanimālium
Dative turrīturribuspartīpartibusanimālīanimālibus
Ablative turre
turrī
parte
(partī)

The rules for determining i-stems from non-i-stems and mixed i-stems are guidelines rather than rules: many words that might be expected to be i-stems according to the parisyllabic rule actually are not, such as canis ('dog') or iuvenis ('youth'), which have genitive plural canum 'of dogs' and iuvenum 'of young men'. Likewise, pater ('father'), māter ('mother'), frāter ('brother'), and parēns ('parent') violate the double-consonant rule. This fluidity even in Roman times resulted in much more uncertainty in Medieval Latin.

Some nouns in -tāt-, such as cīvitās, cīvitātis 'city, community' can have either consonant-stem or i-stem genitive plural: cīvitātum or cīvitātium 'of the cities'.[15]

Peculiarities

In the third declension, there are four irregular nouns.

Case vīs, vīs
force, power f.
sūs, suis
swine, pig, hog m.f.
bōs, bovis
ox, bullock m.f.
Iuppiter, Iovis
Jupiter m.
SingularPluralSingularPluralSingularPluralSingular
Nominative vīsvīrēssūssuēsbōs[lower-roman 1]bovēsIuppiter
Iūpiter[lower-roman 1]
Vocative
Accusative vimvīrēs
vīrīs
suembovemIovem
Genitive vīs[lower-roman 2]vīriumsuissuumbovisboum
bovum
Iovis
Dative [lower-roman 2]vīribussuīsuibus
sūbus
bovībōbus
būbus[lower-roman 1]
Iovī
Ablative sueboveIove
  1. Here ō or ū come from Old Latin ou. Thus bō-/bū- and Iū- before consonant endings are alternate developments of the bov- and Iov- before vowel endings. — The double pp in the preferred form Iu-ppiter "Father Jove" is an alternate way of marking the length of the u in the etymological form Iū-piter (see footnote in Jupiter (mythology)). i is weakened from a in pater (Allen and Greenough, sect. 79 b).
  2. Genitive and dative cases are seldom used.

Fourth declension (u stems)

The fourth declension is a group of nouns consisting of mostly masculine words such as flūctus, flūctūs m. ('wave') and portus, portūs m. ('port') with a few feminine exceptions, including manus, manūs f. ('hand') and domus, domūs f. ('house'). The fourth declension also includes several neuter nouns including genū, genūs n. ('knee'). Each noun has the ending -ūs as a suffix attached to the root of the noun in the genitive singular form. The predominant letter in the ending forms of this declension is u, but the declension is otherwise very similar to the third-declension i stems.

Fourth declension paradigm
-us ending nouns ending nouns
SingularPlural SingularPlural
Nominative -us-ūs-ua
Vocative
Accusative -um
Genitive -ūs-uum-ūs-uum
Dative -uī-ibus
-ubus[lower-roman 1]
-ibus
Ablative
Locative Dat.Dat.
  1. used only on bisyllabic words like arcus and artus.
portus, portūs
port m.
genū, genūs
knee n.
Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nominative portusportūsgenūgenua
Vocative
Accusative portum
Genitive portūsportuumgenūsgenuum
Dative portuīportibusgenūgenibus
Ablative portū
  • In the genitive singular, cornūs may in later times be replaced by cornū.
  • The locative endings for the fourth declension are (singular) and -ibus (plural); senātī "at [the] senate", domī "at home".

Domus

Domus ('house, dwelling, building, home, native place, family, household, race') is an irregular noun, mixing fourth and second declension nouns at the same time (especially in literature). However, in practice, it is generally declined as a regular -us stem fourth declension noun (except by the ablative singular and accusative plural, using and -ōs instead).[17]

domus, domūs/domī f.
All possible declensions
Singular Plural
Nominative domusdomūs
Vocative
Accusative domumdomūs
domōs
Genitive domūs
domī
domuum
domōrum
Dative domuī
domū
domō
domibus
Ablative domū
domō
Locative domī
domus, domūs f.
Most common paradigm
Singular Plural
Nominative domusdomūs
Vocative
Accusative domumdomōs
Genitive domūsdomuum
Dative domuīdomibus
Ablative domō
Locative domī

    Fifth declension (e stems)

    The fifth declension is a small group of nouns consisting of mostly feminine nouns like rēs, reī f. ('affair, matter, thing') and diēs, diēī m. ('day'; but f. in names of days). Each noun has either the ending -ēī or -eī as a suffix attached to the root of the noun in the genitive singular form.

    Fifth declension paradigm
    -iēs ending nouns-ēs ending nouns
    SingularPlural SingularPlural
    Nominative -iēs-iēs-ēs-ēs
    Vocative
    Accusative -iem-em
    Genitive -iēī-iērum-eī-ērum
    Dative -iēbus-ēbus
    Ablative -iē
    Locative Abl.Abl.Abl.Abl.
    diēs, diēī
    day m., f.
    rēs, reī
    thing f.
    Singular Plural Singular Plural
    Nominative diēsdiēsrēsrēs
    Vocative
    Accusative diemrem
    Genitive diēīdiērumreīrērum
    Dative diēbusrēbus
    Ablative diē

    Nouns ending in -iēs have long ēī in the dative and genitive, while nouns ending in a consonant + -ēs have short in these cases.

    The locative ending of the fifth declension was (singular only), identical to the ablative singular, as in hodiē ('today').

    Pronouns

    Personal pronouns

    The first and second persons are irregular, and both pronouns are indeclinable for gender; and the third person reflexive pronoun sē, suī always refers back to the subject, regardless of whether the subject is singular or plural.

    First Person Second Person Third Person
    ego, nōs
    I, we
    , vōs
    you
    sē, suī
    himself, herself, itself,
    oneself,
    themselves
    Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
    Nominative ego
    egō
    nōsvōs
    Accusative
    sēsē
    Genitive
    complements
    meīnostrītuīvestrīsuī
    Genitive partitive nostrum vestrum
    Dative mihi
    mihī
    nōbīstibi
    tibī
    vōbīssibi
    sibī
    Ablative
    sēsē

    The genitive forms meī, tuī, nostrī, vestrī, suī are used as complements in certain grammatical constructions, whereas nostrum, vestrum are used with a partitive meaning ('[one] of us', '[one] of you'). To express possession, the possessive pronouns (essentially adjectives) meus, tuus, noster, vester are used, declined in the first and second declensions to agree in number and case with the thing possessed, e.g. pater meus 'my father', māter mea 'my mother'. The vocative singular masculine of meus is : mī Attice 'my dear Atticus'.[18]

    Possessive pronouns' declensions

    meus, mea, meum
    my, mine
    Singular Plural
    Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter
    Nominative meusmeameummeīmeaemea
    Vocative
    Accusative meummeammeōsmeās
    Genitive meīmeaemeīmeōrummeārummeōrum
    Dative meōmeōmeīs
    Ablative meā
    tuus, tua, tuum
    your, yours (for singular possessor)
    Singular Plural
    Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter
    Nominative tuustuatuumtuītuaetua
    Vocative
    Accusative tuumtuamtuōstuās
    Genitive tuītuaetuītuōrumtuārumtuōrum
    Dative tuōtuōtuīs
    Ablative tuā
    suus, sua, suum
    his, her, its, theirs (reflexive)
    Singular Plural
    Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter
    Nominative suussuasuumsuīsuaesua
    Vocative
    Accusative suumsuamsuōssuās
    Genitive suīsuaesuīsuōrumsuārumsuōrum
    Dative suōsuōsuīs
    Ablative suā
    noster, nostra, nostrum
    our, ours
    Singular Plural
    Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter
    Nominative nosternostranostrumnostrīnostraenostra
    Vocative
    Accusative nostrumnostramnostrōsnostrās
    Genitive nostrīnostraenostrīnostrōrumnostrārumnostrōrum
    Dative nostrōnostrōnostrīs
    Ablative nostrā

    The possessive adjective vester has an archaic variant, voster; similar to noster.

    vester, vestra, vestrum
    voster, vostra, vostrum
    your, yours (for plural possessor)
    Singular Plural
    Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter
    Nominative vester
    voster
    vestra
    vostra
    vestrum
    vostrum
    vestrī
    vostrī
    vestrae
    vostrae
    vestra
    vostra
    Vocative
    Accusative vestrum
    vostrum
    vestram
    vostram
    vestrōs
    vostrōs
    vestrās
    vostrās
    Genitive vestrī
    vostrī
    vestrae
    vostrae
    vestrī
    vostrī
    vestrōrum
    vostrōrum
    vestrārum
    vostrārum
    vestrōrum
    vostrōrum
    Dative vestrō
    vostrō
    vestrō
    vostrō
    vestrīs
    vostrīs
    Ablative vestrā
    vostrā

    Usually, to show the ablative of accompaniment, cum would be added to the ablative form. However, with personal pronouns (first and second person), the reflexive and the interrogative, -cum is added onto the end of the ablative form. That is: mēcum 'with me', nōbīscum 'with us', tēcum 'with you', vōbīscum, sēcum and quōcum (sometimes quīcum).

    Pronouns have also an emphatic form bi using the suffix -met (egomet, tūte/tūtemet, nosmet, vosmet), used in all cases, except by the genitive plural forms.

    In accusative case, the forms mēmē and tētē exist as emphatic, but they are not widely used.

    Sē, suī has a possessive adjective: suus, sua, suum, meaning 'his/her/its/their own':

    Patrem suum numquam vīderat. (Cicero)[19]
    "He had never seen his [own] father."

    When 'his' or 'her' refers to someone else, not the subject, the genitive pronoun eius (as well as eōrum and eārum) 'of him' is used instead of suus:

    Fit obviam Clodiō ante fundum eius. (Cicero)[20]
    "He met Clodius in front of the latter's farm."

    When one sentence is embedded inside another with a different subject, and suus can refer to either subject:

    Patrēs conscrīptī ... lēgātōs in Bīthȳniam miserunt quī ab rēge peterent, nē inimīcissimum suum secum haberet sibique dēderet. (Nepos)[21]
    "The senators ... sent ambassadors to Bithynia, who were to ask the king not to keep their greatest enemy with him but hand him over to them."

    For the third-person pronoun is 'he', see below.

    Demonstrative pronouns and adjectives

    Relative, demonstrative and indefinite pronouns are generally declined like first and second declension adjectives, with the following differences:

    • the nominatives are often irregular
    • the genitive singular ends in -īus rather than -ae or .
    • the dative singular ends in : rather than -ae or .

    These differences characterize the pronominal declension, and a few special adjectives (tōtus 'whole', sōlus 'alone', ūnus 'one', nūllus 'no', alius 'another', alter 'another [of two]', etc.) are also declined according to this pattern.

    All demonstrative, relative, and indefinite pronouns in Latin can also be used adjectivally, with some small differences; for example in the interrogative pronoun, quis 'who?' and quid 'what?' are usually used for the pronominal form, quī and quod 'which?' for the adjectival form.

    Third person pronoun

    The weak demonstrative pronoun is, ea, id 'that' also serves as the third person pronoun 'he, she, it':

    Third person
    is, ea, id
    he, she, it
    Singular Plural
    Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter
    Nominative iseaid
    eaeea
    Accusative eumeameōseās
    Genitive eiuseōrumeārumeōrum
    Dative eīs
    iīs
    Ablative

    This pronoun is also often used adjectivally, e.g. is homo 'that man', ea pecunia 'that money'. It has no possessive adjective; the genitive is used instead: pater eius 'his/her father'; pater eōrum 'their father'.

    Declension of īdem

    The pronoun or pronominal adjective īdem, eadem, idem means 'the same'. It is derived from is with the suffix -dem. However, some forms have been assimilated.

    īdem, eadem, idem
    the same, same as
    Singular Plural
    Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter
    Nominative īdemeademidemeīdem
    īdem
    iīdem
    eaedemeadem
    Accusative eundemeandemeōsdemeāsdem
    Genitive eiusdemeōrundemeārundemeōrundem
    Dative eīdemeīsdem
    īsdem
    iīsdem
    Ablative eōdemeādemeōdem

    Other demonstrative pronouns

    hic, haec, hoc
    this, this one (proximal)
    ille, illa, illud
    that, that one (distal)
    iste, ista, istud
    that of yours (medial)
    Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
    Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter
    Nominative hichaechochaehaecilleillailludillīillaeillaisteistaistudistīistaeista
    Accusative hunchanchōshāsillumillamillōsillāsistumistamistōsistās
    Genitive huius[lower-roman 1]hōrumhārumhōrumillīusillōrumillārumillōrumistīusistōrumistārumistōrum
    Dative huichīsillīillīsistīistīs
    Ablative hōchāchōcillōillāillōistōistāistō
    1. Sometimes spelled hūius. Here, the macron indicates that the syllable is long or heavy, because the consonantal i between vowels is pronounced double, like *huiius, and the doubled consonant makes the first syllable heavy.

    Similar in declension is alius, alia, aliud 'another'.

    Intensive pronoun

    ipse, ipsa, ipsum
    himself, herself, itself
    Singular Plural
    Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter
    Nominative ipseipsaipsumipsiipsaeipsa
    Accusative ipsumipsamipsōsipsās
    Genitive ipsīusipsōrumipsārumipsōrum
    Dative ipsīipsīs
    Ablative ipsōipsāipsō

    Interrogative pronouns

    The interrogative pronouns are used strictly for asking questions. They are distinct from the relative pronoun and the interrogative adjective (which is declined like the relative pronoun). Interrogative pronouns rarely occur in the plural. The plural interrogative pronouns are the same as the plural relative pronouns.

    Singular
    quis? quid?
    who?, what?
    Masculine &
    Feminine
    Neuter
    Nominative quis?quid?
    Accusative quem?
    Genitive cuius?[lower-roman 1]
    Dative cui?
    Ablative quō?

    Relative pronouns

    quī, quae, quod
    who, which, that
    Singular Plural
    Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter
    Nominative quīquaequodquīquaequae
    Accusative quemquamquōsquās
    Genitive cuius[lower-roman 1]quōrumquārumquōrum
    Dative cuiquibus
    Ablative quōquāquō
    1. Sometimes spelled cūius. Here, the macron indicates that the syllable is long or heavy, because the consonantal i between vowels is pronounced double, like *cuiius, and the doubled consonant makes the first syllable heavy.

    Adjectives

    First- and second-declension adjectives

    First- and second-declension adjectives are inflected in the masculine, the feminine and the neuter; the masculine form typically ends in -us (although some end in -er, see below), the feminine form ends in -a, and the neuter form ends in -um. Therefore, some adjectives are given like altus, alta, altum.

    Adjectives ending -ius use the vocative -ie (ēbrie, "[O] drunk man", vocative of ēbrius), just as in Old Latin all -ius nouns did (fīlie, "[O] son", archaic vocative of fīlius).

    altus, alta, altum
    high, long, tall
    Singular Plural
    Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter
    Nominative altusaltaaltumaltīaltaealta
    Vocative alte
    Accusative altumaltamaltōsaltās
    Genitive altīaltaealtīaltōrumaltārumaltōrum
    Dative altōaltōaltīs
    Ablative altā

    First- and second-declension -r adjectives

    Some first- and second-declension adjectives' masculine forms end in -er. As with second-declension -r nouns, some adjectives retain the e throughout inflection, and some omit it. Sacer, sacra, sacrum omits its e while miser, misera, miserum keeps it.

    miser, misera, miserum
    sad, poor, unhappy
    Singular Plural
    Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter
    Nominative misermiseramiserummiserīmiseraemisera
    Vocative
    Accusative miserummiserammiserōsmiserās
    Genitive miserīmiseraemiserīmiserōrummiserārummiserōrum
    Dative miserōmiserōmiserīs
    Ablative miserā
    sacer, sacra, sacrum
    sacred, holy
    Singular Plural
    Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter
    Nominative sacersacrasacrumsacrīsacraesacra
    Vocative
    Accusative sacrumsacramsacrōssacrās
    Genitive sacrīsacraesacrīsacrōrumsacrārumsacrōrum
    Dative sacrōsacrōsacrīs
    Ablative sacrā

    First and second declension pronominal adjectives

    Nine first and second declension pronominal adjectives are irregular in the genitive and the dative in all genders. They can be remembered by using the mnemonic acronym ūnus nauta. They are:

    ūllus, ūlla, ūllum
    any
    Singular Plural
    Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter
    Nominative ūllusūllaūllumūllīūllaeūlla
    Accusative ūllumūllamūllōsūllās
    Genitive ūllīusūllōrumūllārumūllōrum
    Dative ūllīūllīs
    Ablative ūllōūllāūllō

    Third-declension adjectives

    Third-declension adjectives are normally declined like third-declension i-stem nouns, except for the fact they usually have rather than -e in the ablative singular (unlike i-stem nouns, in which only pure i-stems have ). Some adjectives, however, like the one-ending vetus, veteris ('old, aged'), have -e in the ablative singular, -um in the genitive plural, and -a in the nominative and accusative neuter plural.

    Third-declension adjectives with one ending

    These have a single nominative ending for all genders, although as usual the endings for the other cases vary. As with nouns, a genitive is given for the purpose of showing the inflection.

    atrōx, atrōx
    terrible, mean, cruel
    Singular Plural
    Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter
    Nominative atrōxatrōxatrōcēsatrōcia
    Vocative
    Accusative atrōcematrōcēs
    atrōcīs
    Genitive atrōcisatrōcium
    Dative atrōcīatrōcibus
    Ablative
    Non-i-stem variant
    vetus, vetus
    old, aged
    Singular Plural
    Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter
    Nominative vetusvetusveterēsvetera
    Vocative
    Accusative veterem
    Genitive veterisveterum
    Dative veterīveteribus
    Ablative vetere

    Third-declension adjectives with two endings

    Third-declension adjectives that have two endings have one form for the masculine and feminine, and a separate form for the neuter. The ending for the masculine and feminine is -is, and the ending for the neuter is -e. It is not necessary to give the genitive, as it is the same as the nominative masculine singular.

    agilis, agile
    nimble, swift
    Singular Plural
    Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter
    Nominative agilisagileagilēsagilia
    Vocative
    Accusative agilemagilēs
    agilīs
    Genitive agilisagilium
    Dative agilīagilibus
    Ablative

    Third-declension adjectives with three endings

    Third-declension adjectives with three endings have three separate nominative forms for all three genders. Like third and second declension -r nouns, the masculine ends in -er. The feminine ends in -ris, and the neuter ends in -re. The genitive is the same as the nominative feminine singular.

    celer, celeris, celere
    swift, rapid, brash
    Singular Plural
    Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter
    Nominative celerceleriscelerecelerēsceleria
    Vocative
    Accusative celerem
    Genitive celeriscelerium
    Dative celerīceleribus
    Ablative
    alacer, alacris, alacre
    lively, jovial, animated
    Singular Plural
    Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter
    Nominative alaceralacrisalacrealacrēsalacria
    Vocative
    Accusative alacremalacrēs
    alacrīs
    Genitive alacrisalacrium
    Dative alacrīalacribus
    Ablative

    Comparative and superlative forms of adjectives

    As in English, adjectives have superlative and comparative forms. For regular first and second declension and third declension adjectives with one or two endings, the comparative is formed by adding -ior for the masculine and feminine, and -ius for the neuter to the stem. The genitives for both are formed by adding -iōris. Therefore, they are declined in the third declension, but they are not declined as i-stems. Superlatives are formed by adding -issimus, -issima, -issimum to the stem and are thus declined like first and second declension adjectives.

    General pattern for comparatives

    altior, altius
    higher, deeper (comparative of altus)
    Singular Plural
    Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter
    Nominative altioraltiusaltiōrēsaltiōra
    Vocative
    Accusative altiōrem
    Genitive altiōrisaltiōrum
    Dative altiōrīaltiōribus
    Ablative altiōre
    altissimus, altissima, altissimum
    highest, deepest (superlative of altus)
    Singular Plural
    Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter
    Nominative altissimusaltissimaaltissimumaltissimīaltissimaealtissima
    Vocative altissime
    Accusative altissimumaltissimamaltissimōsaltissimās
    Genitive altissimīaltissimaealtissimīaltissimōrumaltissimārumaltissimōrum
    Dative altissimōaltissimōaltissimīs
    Ablative altissimā

    Comparatives and superlatives with normal endings

    PositiveComparativeSuperlative
    clārus, clāra, clārum ('clear, bright, famous')clārior, clāriusclārissimus, clārissima, clārissimum
    frīgidus, frīgida, frīgidum ('cold, chilly')frīgidior, frīgidiusfrīgidissimus, frīgidissima, frīgidissimum
    pugnāx, pugnāx (pugnācis) ('pugnacious')pugnācior, pugnāciuspugnācissimus, pugnācissima, pugnācissimum
    benevolēns, benevolēns (benevolentis) ('kind, benevolent')benevolentior, benevolentiusbenevolentissimus, benevolentissima, benevolentissium
    fortis, forte ('strong, robust')fortior, fortiusfortissimus, fortissima, fortissimum
    aequālis, aequāle ('equal, even')aequālior, aequāliusaequālissimus, aequālissima, aequālissimum

    Comparatives and superlatives of -er adjectives

    Adjectives (in the first and second as well as third declensions) that have masculine nominative singular forms ending in -er are slightly different. As with normal adjectives, the comparative is formed by adding -ior to the stem, but for the superlative, -rimus is added to the nominative masculine singular.

    PositiveComparativeSuperlative
    pulcher, pulchra, pulchrum ('pretty, beautiful')pulchrior, pulchriuspulcherrimus, pulcherrima, pulcherrimum
    sacer, sacra, sacrum ('sacred, holy')sacrior, sacriussacerrimus, sacerrima, sacerrimum
    tener, tenera, tenerum ('delicate, tender')tenerior, teneriustenerrimus, tenerrima, tenerrimum
    ācer, ācris, ācre ('valliant, fierce')ācrior, ācriusācerrimus, ācerrima, ācerrimum
    celeber, celebris, celebre ('celebrated, famous')celebrior, celebriusceleberrimus, celeberrima, celeberrimum
    celer, celeris, celere ('quick, fast')celerior, celeriuscelerrimus, celerrima, celerrimum

    Comparatives and superlatives of -lis adjectives

    Some third declension adjectives with two endings in -lis in the masculine–feminine nominative singular have irregular superlative forms. The following are the only adjectives that do.

    PositiveComparativeSuperlative
    facilis, facile ('easy')facilior, faciliusfacillimus, facillima, facillimum
    difficilis, difficile ('hard, difficult')difficilior, difficiliusdifficillimus, difficillima, difficillimum
    similis, simile ('similar, like)similior, similiussimillimus, simillima, simillimum
    dissimilis, dissimile ('unlike, dissimilar')dissimilior, dissimiliusdissimillimus, dissimillima, dissimillimum
    gracilis, gracile ('slender, slim')gracilior, graciliusgracillimus, gracillima, gracillimum
    humilis, humile ('low, humble')humilior, humiliushumillimus, humillima, humillimum

    Comparatives and superlatives of -eus/-ius adjectives

    First and second declension adjectives that end in -eus or -ius are unusual in that they do not form the comparative and superlative by taking endings at all. Instead, magis ('more') and maximē ('most'), the comparative and superlative degrees of magnoperē ('much, greatly'), respectively, are used.

    Many adjectives in -uus, except those in -quus or -guus, also follow this rule.

    PositiveComparativeSuperlative
    idōneus, idōnea, idōneum ('suitable, fitting, proper')magis idōneusmaximē idōneus
    sōlitārius, sōlitāria, sōlitārium ('solitary, lonely')magis sōlitāriusmaximē sōlitārius
    ebrius, ebria, ebrium ('drunk')magis ebriusmaximē ebrius
    meritōrius, meritōria, meritōrium ('meritorious')magis meritōriusmaximē meritōrius
    grāmineus, grāminea, grāmineum ('grassy')magis grāmineusmaximē grāmineus
    bellātōrius, bellātōria, bellātōrium ('warlike, bellicose')magis bellātōriusmaximē bellātōrius
    arduus, ardua, arduum ('lofty, steep')magis arduusmaximē arduus

    Irregular comparatives and superlatives

    As in most languages, Latin has adjectives that have irregular comparatives and superlatives.

    PositiveComparativeSuperlative
    bonus, bona, bonum ('good')melior, melius ('better')optimus, optima, optimum ('best')
    malus, mala, malum ('bad, evil')pēior, pēius ('worse')pessimus, pessima, pessimum ('worst')
    magnus, magna, magnum ('great, large')māior, māius ('greater')maximus, maxima, maximum ('greatest')
    parvus, parva, parvum ('small, slight')minor, minus ('lesser')minimus, minima, minimum ('least')
    multus, multa, multum ('much, many')plūs[lower-roman 1] ('more')plūrimus, plūrima, plūrimum ('most')
    propinquus, propinqua, propinquum ('near, close')propior, propius ('nearer')proximus, proxima, proximum ('nearest, next')
    mātūrus, mātūra, mātūrum ('ripe, mature')mātūrior, mātūrius ('riper')mātūrrimus, mātūrrima, mātūrrimum[lower-roman 2] ('ripest')
    nēquam[lower-roman 3] ('worthless')nēquior, nēquius ('more worthless')nēquissimus, nēquissima, nēquissimum ('most worthless')
    posterus, postera, posterum ('next, future')posterior, posterius ('later')postrēmus, postrēma, postrēmum ('last, latest')
    postumus, postuma, postumum
    superus, supera, superum ('above')superior, superius ('upper')suprēmus, suprēma, suprēmum ('uppermost')
    summus, summa, summum
    exterus, extera, exterum ('outward')exterior, exterius ('outer')extrēmus, extrēma, extrēmum ('outermost')
    extimus, extima, extimum
    īnferus, īnfera, īnferum ('below')īnferior, īnferius ('lower')īnfimus, īnfima, īnfimum ('lowest')
    īmus, īma, īmum
    senex, senis ('old, aged')senior ('older, elder')maximus nātū, maxima nātū ('oldest, eldest')
    iuvenis, iuvenis ('young, youthful')iuvenior ('younger')
    iūnior
    minimus nātū, minima nātū ('youngest')[lower-roman 4]
    1. Noun used with genitive to express more of something in the singular; in the plural used as an adjective: plūrēs, plūra, genitive plūrium.
    2. Often replaced by the regular form mātūrissimus, mātūrissima, mātūrissimum.
    3. Indeclinable.
    4. Sometimes iunissimus is found in medieval Latin, e.g. Callistus Nicephorus, Ecclesiastica Historia, 1574.

    Declension of numerals

    There are several different kinds of numeral words in Latin: the two most common are cardinal numerals and ordinal numerals. There are also several more rare numerals, e.g., distributive numerals and adverbial numerals.

    Cardinal numerals

    All cardinal numerals are indeclinable, except ūnus ('one'), duo ('two'), trēs ('three'), plural hundreds ducentī ('two hundred'), trecentī ('three hundred') etc., and mīlle ('thousand'), which have cases and genders like adjectives. Ūnus, ūna, ūnum is declined like a first- and second-declension pronoun with -īus or -ius in the genitive, and in the dative. Duo is declined irregularly, trēs is declined like a third-declension plural adjective, -centī ('hundred') numerals decline like first- and second-declension adjectives, and mīlle is invariable in the singular and declined like a third-declension i-stem neuter noun in the plural:

    The plural endings for ūnus are used with plūrālia tantum nouns, e. g. ūna castra (one [military] camp), ūnae scālae (one ladder).

    ūnus, ūna, ūnum
    one
    Singular Plural
    Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter
    Nominative ūnusūnaūnumūnīūnaeūna
    Vocative ūne
    Accusative ūnumūnamūnōsūnās
    Genitive ūnīus / ūniusūnōrumūnārumūnōrum
    Dative ūnīūnīs
    Ablative ūnōūnāūnō

    The word ambō ('both'), is declined like duo except that its o is long. Both declensions derive from the Indo-European dual number, otherwise defunct in Latin, rather than the plural.

    duo, duae, duo
    two
    Plural
    MasculineFeminineNeuter
    Nominative duoduaeduo
    Vocative
    Accusative duōs
    duo
    duās
    Genitive duōrumduārumduōrum
    Dative duōbusduābusduōbus
    Ablative
    ambō, ambae, ambō
    both
    Plural
    MasculineFeminineNeuter
    Nominative ambōambaeambō
    Vocative
    Accusative ambōs
    ambō
    ambās
    Genitive ambōrumambārumambōrum
    Dative ambōbusambābusambōbus
    Ablative
    trēs, tria
    three
    Plural
    MasculineFeminineNeuter
    Nominative trēstria
    Vocative
    Accusative trēs / trīs
    Genitive trium
    Dative tribus
    Ablative

    The numeral centum ('one hundred') is indeclinable, but all the other hundred numerals are declinable (ducentī, trecentī, quadringentī, quīngentī, sescentī, septingentī, octingentī, nōngentī).

    ducentī, ducentae, ducenta
    two hundred
    Plural
    MasculineFeminineNeuter
    Nominative ducentīducentaeducenta
    Vocative
    Accusative ducentōsducentās
    Genitive ducentōrumducentārumducentōrum
    Dative ducentīs
    Ablative

    The word mīlle 'thousand' is a singular indeclinable adjective. However, its plural, mīlia, is a plural third-declension i-stem neuter noun. To write the phrase "four thousand horses" in Latin, the genitive is used: quattuor mīlia equōrum, literally, "four thousands of horses".

    mīlle
    (one) thousand
    mīlia, mīlium
    x thousand,
    thousands
    Nominative mīllemīlia
    mīllia
    -ia
    Vocative
    Accusative
    Genitive mīlium
    mīllium
    -ium
    Dative mīlibus
    mīllibus
    -ibus
    Ablative

    The rest of the numbers are indeclinable whether used as adjectives or as nouns.

    For further information on the different sets of Latin numerals, see Latin numerals (linguistics).

    Adverbs and their comparatives and superlatives

    Adverbs are not declined. However, adverbs must be formed if one wants to make an adjective into an adverb.

    Adverbs from first- and second-declension adjectives

    First and second declension adjectives' adverbs are formed by adding onto their stems.

    AdjectiveAdverb
    clārus, clāra, clārum ('clear, famous')clārē ('clearly, famously')
    validus, valida, validum ('strong, robust')validē ('strongly, robustly')
    īnfīrmus, īnfīrma, īnfīrmum ('weak')īnfīrmē ('weakly')
    solidus, solida, solidum ('complete, firm')solidē ('completely, firmly')
    integer, integra, integrum ('whole, fresh')integrē ('wholly, freshly')
    līber, lībera, līberum ('free')līberē ('freely')

    Adverbs from third declension adjectives

    Typically, third declension adjectives' adverbs are formed by adding -iter to the stem. However, most third declension adjectives with one ending simply add -er to the stem.

    AdjectiveAdverb
    prūdēns, prūdēns (prūdentis) ('prudent')prūdenter ('prudently')
    audāx, audāx (audācis) ('bold')audācter ('boldly')
    virīlis, virīle ('courageous, spirited')virīliter ('courageously, spiritedly')
    salūbris, salūbre ('wholesome')salūbriter ('wholesomely')

    Comparative and superlative of adverbs

    Adverbs' comparative forms are identical to the nominative neuter singular of the corresponding comparative adjective. Adverbs' superlative forms are simply formed by attaching the regular ending to the corresponding superlative adjective. As with their corresponding adjectival forms, first and second declensions adjectives ending in -eus or -ius use magis and maximē as opposed to distinct endings.

    PositiveComparativeSuperlative
    clārē ('clearly, famously')clāriusclārissimē
    solidē ('completely, firmly')solidiussolidissimē
    idōneē ('suitably, properly')magis idōneēmaximē idōneē
    prudenter ('prudently')prudentiusprudentissimē
    salūbriter ('wholesomely')salūbriussalūbrissimē

    Irregular adverbs and their comparative and superlative forms

    As with adjectives, there are irregular adverbs with peculiar comparative and superlative forms.

    PositiveComparativeSuperlative
    bene ('well')melius ('better')optimē ('best')
    male ('badly, ill')peius ('worse')pessimē ('worst')
    magnopere ('greatly')magis ('more')maximē ('most')
    multum ('much, a lot')plūs ('more')plūrimum ('most')
    parvum ('little')minus ('less')minimē ('least')
    nēquiter ('worthlessly')nēquius ('more worthlessly')nēquissimē ('most worthlessly')
    saepe ('often')saepius ('more often')saepissimē ('most often')
    mātūrē ('seasonably, betimes')mātūrius ('more seasonably')māturrimē ('most seasonably')
    prope ('near')propius ('nearer')proximē ('nearest, next')
    nūper ('recently')nūperrimē ('most recently, previously')
    potis ('possible')potius ('rather')potissimē ('especially')
    prius ('before, previously')prīmō ('first')
    secus ('otherwise')sētius
    sequius ('less')

    Peculiarities within declension

    Irregularity in number

    Some nouns are only used in the singular (singulare tantum) such as:

    • materials, such as aurum 'gold'

    Some nouns are only used in the plural (plurale tantum), or when plural have a singular meaning such as:

    Indeclinable nouns

    Indeclinable nouns are nouns which only have one form in all cases (of the singular).

    Heterogeneous nouns

    Heterogeneous nouns are nouns which vary in respect to gender.

    • A few nouns in the second declension occur in both the neuter and masculine. However, their meanings remain the same.
    • Some nouns are one gender in the singular, but become another gender in the plural. They may also change in meaning.
    SingularPlural
    balneum n. ('bath')balneae f. or balnea n. ('bathhouse')
    epulum n. ('feast, banquet')epulae f. ('feast, banquet')
    frēnum n. ('bridle, curb')frēnī m. bridle, curb
    iocus m. ('joke, jest')ioca n. or ioci m. ('jokes, fun')
    locus m. ('place, location')loca n. ('region'); locī m. ('places in books, arguments')
    rāstrum n. ('hoe, rake')rāstrī m. ('hoes, rakes')

    Plurals with alternative meanings

    SingularPlural
    aedēs, aedis f. ('building, temple')aedēs, aedium ('rooms, house')
    auxilium, auxiliī n. ('help, aid')auxilia, auxiliōrum ('auxiliary troops')
    carcer, carceris m. ('prison, cell')carcerēs, carcerum ('starting traps')
    castrum, castrī n. ('fort, castle, fortress')castra, castrōrum ('military camp, encampment')
    cōpia, copiae f. ('plenty, much, abundance')cōpiae, copiārum ('troops')
    fortūna, fortūnae f. ('luck, chance')fortūnae, fortūnārum ('wealth, fortune')
    grātia, grātiae f. ('charm, favor')grātiae, grātiārum ('thanks')
    impedīmentum, impedīmentī m. ('impediment, hindrance')impedīmenta, impedīmentōrum ('baggage, baggage train')
    littera, litterae f. ('letter [alphabet]')litterae, litterārum ('letter [message], epistle, scholarship, literature')
    mōs, mōris m. ('habit, inclination')mōrēs, mōrum m. ('morals, character')
    opera, operae f. ('trouble, pains')operae, operārum m. ('workmen')
    *ops, opis f.[lower-roman 1] ('help')opēs, opium ('resources, wealth')
    pars, partis f. ('part, piece')partēs, partium ('office, function')
    1. Nominative and dative are not attested except as the name of the goddess Ops.

    See also

    Notes

    1. Aelius Donatus, Ars Major, 2.8.
    2. Mongan, James Roscoe (1861). The School and University Eton Latin Grammar, Explanatory and Critical. London 1861.
    3. Paul Crouzet (1902), Grammaire Latine, simple et complète, p. 7.
    4. Allen and Greenough. §43 c.
    5. Allen and Greenough. §49 a.
    6. Gildersleeve & Lodge §15, Allen & Greenough §12, §49c
    7. Perseus database.
    8. Gildersleeve & Lodge, Latin Grammar 3rd ed., p. 17.
    9. Chambers's Etymological Dictionary Enlarged Edition 1931
    10. June 1999 issue of ASM News by the American Society for Microbiology
    11. Nuntii Latini: Finnish Broadcasting Company (Radiophonia Finnica Generalis). Archiv I. 19.5.2000 – 6.12.2002: "NOVUM VIRUS COMPUTATORIUM
      Novum viri computatorii genus nomine Code Red in praesenti in Interreti grassatur, ut nuntiavit institutum SANS, cuius est securitati retis informatici providere. Code Red II, quod per cursum electronicum diffunditur, priore viro acerbius est et, postquam in servitoria penetravit, in systema lacunam facit. Ita fieri potest, ut alia vira eaque etiam periculosiora in machinas computatorias irrepant. Iam vermis Code Red I molestissimus fuit, cum biduo in trecenta milia computatrorum in omni orbe terrarum invasit."
    12. Pons: virus
    13. William T. Stearn: Botanical Latin. History, Grammar, Syntax, Terminology and Vocabulary. David & Charles, third edition, 1983. Quote: "Virus: virus (s.n. II), gen. sing. viri, nom. pl. vira, gen. pl. vīrorum (to be distinguished from virorum, of men)."
    14. Allen and Greenough. §80.
    15. Gildersleeve & Lodge (1895), p. 18.
    16. Gildersleeve & Lodge (1895), p. 27.
    17. The Fourth Declension – tutorial by Ben Johnson of LatinTutorial
    18. Cicero, Epistulae ad Atticum 6.1.20 etc.
    19. Cicero, Pro Rabirio Postumo 4
    20. Cicero, Pro Milone 29
    21. Cornelius Nepos, Hannibal 12.2
    22. Gildersleeve & Lodge (1903), Gildersleeve's Latin Grammar, p. 39.

    References

    • New Latin Grammar, an eBook, originally written by Charles Edwin Bennett, at the Project Gutenberg
    • Interactive Latin Word Endings
    • A Student's Latin Grammar, by Cambridge Latin Course's Robin m. Griffin, third edition
    • Gildersleeve, B. L.; Gonzalez Lodge (1895). Gildersleeve's Latin Grammar (3rd ed.). Macmillan. ISBN 0-333-09215-5.
    • Greenough, J. B.; G. L. Kittredge; A. A. Howard; Benj. L. D'Ooge (1903). Allen and Greenough's New Latin Grammar for Schools and Colleges. Ginn and Company.
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