Photon

Photoelectric effect: the emission of electrons from a metal plate caused by light quanta – photons.

1926 Gilbert N. Lewis letter which brought the word "photon" into common usage

The word quanta (singular quantum, Latin for how much) was used before 1900 to mean particles or amounts of different quantities, including electricity. In 1900, the German physicist Max Planck was studying black-body radiation, and he suggested that the experimental observations, specifically at shorter wavelengths, would be explained if the energy stored within a molecule was a "discrete quantity composed of an integral number of finite equal parts", which he called "energy elements".[9] In 1905, Albert Einstein published a paper in which he proposed that many light-related phenomena—including black-body radiation and the photoelectric effect—would be better explained by modelling electromagnetic waves as consisting of spatially localized, discrete wave-packets.[10] He called such a wave-packet a light quantum (German: ein Lichtquant).[lower-alpha 2]

The name photon derives from the Greek word for light, φῶς (transliterated phôs). Arthur Compton used photon in 1928, referring to G.N. Lewis, who coined the term in a letter to Nature on 18 December 1926.[3][11] The same name was used earlier but was never widely adopted before Lewis: in 1916 by the American physicist and psychologist Leonard T. Troland, in 1921 by the Irish physicist John Joly, in 1924 by the French physiologist René Wurmser (1890–1993), and in 1926 by the French physicist Frithiof Wolfers (1891–1971).[5] The name was suggested initially as a unit related to the illumination of the eye and the resulting sensation of light and was used later in a physiological context. Although Wolfers's and Lewis's theories were contradicted by many experiments and never accepted, the new name was adopted by most physicists very soon after Compton used it.[5][lower-alpha 3]

In physics, a photon is usually denoted by the symbol γ (the Greek letter gamma). This symbol for the photon probably derives from gamma rays, which were discovered in 1900 by Paul Villard,[13][14] named by Ernest Rutherford in 1903, and shown to be a form of electromagnetic radiation in 1914 by Rutherford and Edward Andrade.[15] In chemistry and optical engineering, photons are usually symbolized by hν, which is the photon energy, where h is the Planck constant and the Greek letter ν (nu) is the photon's frequency.[16]

A photon is massless,[lower-alpha 4] has no electric charge,[18][19] and is a stable particle. In a vacuum, a photon has three possible polarization states.[20] The photon is the gauge boson for electromagnetism,[21]^: 29–30 and therefore all other quantum numbers of the photon (such as lepton number, baryon number, and flavour quantum numbers) are zero.[22] Also, the photon obeys Bose–Einstein statistics, and not Fermi-Dirac statistics. That is, they do not obey the Pauli exclusion principle[23]^: 1221 and more than one can occupy the same bound quantum state.

Photons are emitted in many natural processes. For example, when a charge is accelerated it emits synchrotron radiation. During a molecular, atomic or nuclear transition to a lower energy level, photons of various energy will be emitted, ranging from radio waves to gamma rays. Photons can also be emitted when a particle and its corresponding antiparticle are annihilated (for example, electron–positron annihilation).[23]^{: 572, 1114, 1172}

Relativistic energy and momentum

See also: Photon energy and Special relativity

The cone shows possible values of wave 4-vector of a photon. The "time" axis gives the angular frequency (rad⋅s⁻¹) and the "space" axis represents the angular wavenumber (rad⋅m⁻¹). Green and indigo represent left and right polarization

In empty space, the photon moves at c (the speed of light) and its energy and momentum are related by E = pc, where p is the magnitude of the momentum vector p. This derives from the following relativistic relation, with m = 0:[24]

${\displaystyle E^{2}=p^{2}c^{2}+m^{2}c^{4}~.}$

The energy and momentum of a photon depend only on its frequency (${\displaystyle \nu }$) or inversely, its wavelength (λ):

${\displaystyle E=\hbar \,\omega =h\nu ={\frac {\,h\,c\,}{\lambda }}}$

${\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {p}}=\hbar {\boldsymbol {k}}~,}$

where k is the wave vector, where

• k ≡ |k| =  2π /λ   is the wave number, and
• ω ≡ 2 πν   is the angular frequency, and
• ħ ≡ h/ 2π    is the reduced Planck constant.[25]

Since ${\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {p}}}$ points in the direction of the photon's propagation, the magnitude of its momentum is

${\displaystyle p\equiv \left|{\boldsymbol {p}}\right|=\hbar k={\frac {\,h\nu \,}{c}}={\frac {\,h\,}{\lambda }}~.}$

Thomas Young's double-slit experiment in 1801 showed that light can act as a wave, helping to invalidate early particle theories of light.[23]^: 964

In most theories up to the eighteenth century, light was pictured as being made up of particles. Since particle models cannot easily account for the refraction, diffraction and birefringence of light, wave theories of light were proposed by René Descartes (1637),[38] Robert Hooke (1665),[39] and Christiaan Huygens (1678);[40] however, particle models remained dominant, chiefly due to the influence of Isaac Newton.[41] In the early 19th century, Thomas Young and August Fresnel clearly demonstrated the interference and diffraction of light, and by 1850 wave models were generally accepted.[42] James Clerk Maxwell's 1865 prediction[43] that light was an electromagnetic wave – which was confirmed experimentally in 1888 by Heinrich Hertz's detection of radio waves[44] – seemed to be the final blow to particle models of light.

In 1900, Maxwell's theoretical model of light as oscillating electric and magnetic fields seemed complete. However, several observations could not be explained by any wave model of electromagnetic radiation, leading to the idea that light-energy was packaged into quanta described by E = hν . Later experiments showed that these light-quanta also carry momentum and, thus, can be considered particles: The photon concept was born, leading to a deeper understanding of the electric and magnetic fields themselves.

The Maxwell wave theory, however, does not account for all properties of light. The Maxwell theory predicts that the energy of a light wave depends only on its intensity, not on its frequency; nevertheless, several independent types of experiments show that the energy imparted by light to atoms depends only on the light's frequency, not on its intensity. For example, some chemical reactions are provoked only by light of frequency higher than a certain threshold; light of frequency lower than the threshold, no matter how intense, does not initiate the reaction. Similarly, electrons can be ejected from a metal plate by shining light of sufficiently high frequency on it (the photoelectric effect); the energy of the ejected electron is related only to the light's frequency, not to its intensity.[45][lower-alpha 6]

At the same time, investigations of black-body radiation carried out over four decades (1860–1900) by various researchers[47] culminated in Max Planck's hypothesis[48][49] that the energy of any system that absorbs or emits electromagnetic radiation of frequency ν is an integer multiple of an energy quantum E = hν . As shown by Albert Einstein,[10][50] some form of energy quantization must be assumed to account for the thermal equilibrium observed between matter and electromagnetic radiation; for this explanation of the photoelectric effect, Einstein received the 1921 Nobel Prize in physics.[51]

Since the Maxwell theory of light allows for all possible energies of electromagnetic radiation, most physicists assumed initially that the energy quantization resulted from some unknown constraint on the matter that absorbs or emits the radiation. In 1905, Einstein was the first to propose that energy quantization was a property of electromagnetic radiation itself.[10] Although he accepted the validity of Maxwell's theory, Einstein pointed out that many anomalous experiments could be explained if the energy of a Maxwellian light wave were localized into point-like quanta that move independently of one another, even if the wave itself is spread continuously over space.[10] In 1909[50] and 1916,[52] Einstein showed that, if Planck's law regarding black-body radiation is accepted, the energy quanta must also carry momentum p =  h / λ  , making them full-fledged particles. This photon momentum was observed experimentally by Arthur Compton,[53] for which he received the Nobel Prize in 1927. The pivotal question then, was how to unify Maxwell's wave theory of light with its experimentally observed particle nature. The answer to this question occupied Albert Einstein for the rest of his life,[54] and was solved in quantum electrodynamics and its successor, the Standard Model. (See § Quantum field theory and § As a gauge boson, below.)

Up to 1923, most physicists were reluctant to accept that light itself was quantized. Instead, they tried to explain photon behaviour by quantizing only matter, as in the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom (shown here). Even though these semiclassical models were only a first approximation, they were accurate for simple systems and they led to quantum mechanics.

Einstein's 1905 predictions were verified experimentally in several ways in the first two decades of the 20th century, as recounted in Robert Millikan's Nobel lecture.[55] However, before Compton's experiment[53] showed that photons carried momentum proportional to their wave number (1922), most physicists were reluctant to believe that electromagnetic radiation itself might be particulate. (See, for example, the Nobel lectures of Wien,[47] Planck[49] and Millikan.)[55] Instead, there was a widespread belief that energy quantization resulted from some unknown constraint on the matter that absorbed or emitted radiation. Attitudes changed over time. In part, the change can be traced to experiments such as those revealing Compton scattering, where it was much more difficult not to ascribe quantization to light itself to explain the observed results.[56]

Even after Compton's experiment, Niels Bohr, Hendrik Kramers and John Slater made one last attempt to preserve the Maxwellian continuous electromagnetic field model of light, the so-called BKS theory.[57] An important feature of the BKS theory is how it treated the conservation of energy and the conservation of momentum. In the BKS theory, energy and momentum are only conserved on the average across many interactions between matter and radiation. However, refined Compton experiments showed that the conservation laws hold for individual interactions.[58] Accordingly, Bohr and his co-workers gave their model "as honorable a funeral as possible".[54] Nevertheless, the failures of the BKS model inspired Werner Heisenberg in his development of matrix mechanics.[59]

A few physicists persisted[60] in developing semiclassical models in which electromagnetic radiation is not quantized, but matter appears to obey the laws of quantum mechanics. Although the evidence from chemical and physical experiments for the existence of photons was overwhelming by the 1970s, this evidence could not be considered as absolutely definitive; since it relied on the interaction of light with matter, and a sufficiently complete theory of matter could in principle account for the evidence. Nevertheless, all semiclassical theories were refuted definitively in the 1970s and 1980s by photon-correlation experiments.[lower-alpha 7] Hence, Einstein's hypothesis that quantization is a property of light itself is considered to be proven.

Photons in a Mach–Zehnder interferometer exhibit wave-like interference and particle-like detection at single-photon detectors.

Photons obey the laws of quantum mechanics, and so their behavior has both wave-like and particle-like aspects. When a photon is detected by a measuring instrument, it is registered as a single, particulate unit. However, the probability of detecting a photon is calculated by equations that describe waves. This combination of aspects is known as wave–particle duality. For example, the probability distribution for the location at which a photon might be detected displays clearly wave-like phenomena such as diffraction and interference. A single photon passing through a double slit has its energy received at a point on the screen with a probability distribution given by its interference pattern determined by Maxwell's wave equations.[63] However, experiments confirm that the photon is not a short pulse of electromagnetic radiation; a photon's Maxwell waves will diffract, but photon energy does not spread out as it propagates, nor does this energy divide when it encounters a beam splitter.[64] Rather, the received photon acts like a point-like particle since it is absorbed or emitted as a whole by arbitrarily small systems, including systems much smaller than its wavelength, such as an atomic nucleus (≈10⁻¹⁵ m across) or even the point-like electron.

While many introductory texts treat photons using the mathematical techniques of non-relativistic quantum mechanics, this is in some ways an awkward oversimplification, as photons are by nature intrinsically relativistic. Because photons have zero rest mass, no wave function defined for a photon can have all the properties familiar from wave functions in non-relativistic quantum mechanics.[lower-alpha 8] In order to avoid these difficulties, physicists employ the second-quantized theory of photons described below, quantum electrodynamics, in which photons are quantized excitations of electromagnetic modes.[69]

Another difficulty is finding the proper analogue for the uncertainty principle, an idea frequently attributed to Heisenberg, who introduced the concept in analyzing a thought experiment involving an electron and a high-energy photon. However, Heisenberg did not give precise mathematical definitions of what the "uncertainty" in these measurements meant. The precise mathematical statement of the position–momentum uncertainty principle is due to Kennard, Pauli, and Weyl.[70][71] The uncertainty principle applies to situations where an experimenter has a choice of measuring either one of two "canonically conjugate" quantities, like the position and the momentum of a particle. According to the uncertainty principle, no matter how the particle is prepared, it is not possible to make a precise prediction for both of the two alternative measurements: if the outcome of the position measurement is made more certain, the outcome of the momentum measurement becomes less so, and vice versa.[72] A coherent state minimizes the overall uncertainty as far as quantum mechanics allows.[69] Quantum optics makes use of coherent states for modes of the electromagnetic field. There is a tradeoff, reminiscent of the position–momentum uncertainty relation, between measurements of an electromagnetic wave's amplitude and its phase.[69] This is sometimes informally expressed in terms of the uncertainty in the number of photons present in the electromagnetic wave, ${\displaystyle \Delta N}$, and the uncertainty in the phase of the wave, ${\displaystyle \Delta \phi }$. However, this cannot be an uncertainty relation of the Kennard–Pauli–Weyl type, since unlike position and momentum, the phase ${\displaystyle \phi }$ cannot be represented by a Hermitian operator.[73]

In 1924, Satyendra Nath Bose derived Planck's law of black-body radiation without using any electromagnetism, but rather by using a modification of coarse-grained counting of phase space.[74] Einstein showed that this modification is equivalent to assuming that photons are rigorously identical and that it implied a "mysterious non-local interaction",[75][76] now understood as the requirement for a symmetric quantum mechanical state. This work led to the concept of coherent states and the development of the laser. In the same papers, Einstein extended Bose's formalism to material particles (bosons) and predicted that they would condense into their lowest quantum state at low enough temperatures; this Bose–Einstein condensation was observed experimentally in 1995.[77] It was later used by Lene Hau to slow, and then completely stop, light in 1999[78] and 2001.[79]

The modern view on this is that photons are, by virtue of their integer spin, bosons (as opposed to fermions with half-integer spin). By the spin-statistics theorem, all bosons obey Bose–Einstein statistics (whereas all fermions obey Fermi–Dirac statistics).[80]

Stimulated emission (in which photons "clone" themselves) was predicted by Einstein in his kinetic analysis, and led to the development of the laser. Einstein's derivation inspired further developments in the quantum treatment of light, which led to the statistical interpretation of quantum mechanics.

In 1916, Albert Einstein showed that Planck's radiation law could be derived from a semi-classical, statistical treatment of photons and atoms, which implies a link between the rates at which atoms emit and absorb photons. The condition follows from the assumption that functions of the emission and absorption of radiation by the atoms are independent of each other, and that thermal equilibrium is made by way of the radiation's interaction with the atoms. Consider a cavity in thermal equilibrium with all parts of itself and filled with electromagnetic radiation and that the atoms can emit and absorb that radiation. Thermal equilibrium requires that the energy density ${\displaystyle \rho (\nu )}$ of photons with frequency ${\displaystyle \nu }$ (which is proportional to their number density) is, on average, constant in time; hence, the rate at which photons of any particular frequency are emitted must equal the rate at which they are absorbed.[81]

Einstein began by postulating simple proportionality relations for the different reaction rates involved. In his model, the rate ${\displaystyle R_{ji}}$ for a system to absorb a photon of frequency ${\displaystyle \nu }$ and transition from a lower energy ${\displaystyle E_{j}}$ to a higher energy ${\displaystyle E_{i}}$ is proportional to the number ${\displaystyle N_{j}}$ of atoms with energy ${\displaystyle E_{j}}$ and to the energy density ${\displaystyle \rho (\nu )}$ of ambient photons of that frequency,

${\displaystyle R_{ji}=N_{j}B_{ji}\rho (\nu )\!}$

where ${\displaystyle B_{ji}}$ is the rate constant for absorption. For the reverse process, there are two possibilities: spontaneous emission of a photon, or the emission of a photon initiated by the interaction of the atom with a passing photon and the return of the atom to the lower-energy state. Following Einstein's approach, the corresponding rate ${\displaystyle R_{ij}}$ for the emission of photons of frequency ${\displaystyle \nu }$ and transition from a higher energy ${\displaystyle E_{i}}$ to a lower energy ${\displaystyle E_{j}}$ is

${\displaystyle R_{ij}=N_{i}A_{ij}+N_{i}B_{ij}\rho (\nu )\!}$

where ${\displaystyle A_{ij}}$ is the rate constant for emitting a photon spontaneously, and ${\displaystyle B_{ij}}$ is the rate constant for emissions in response to ambient photons (induced or stimulated emission). In thermodynamic equilibrium, the number of atoms in state ${\displaystyle i}$ and those in state ${\displaystyle j}$ must, on average, be constant; hence, the rates ${\displaystyle R_{ji}}$ and ${\displaystyle R_{ij}}$ must be equal. Also, by arguments analogous to the derivation of Boltzmann statistics, the ratio of ${\displaystyle N_{i}}$ and ${\displaystyle N_{j}}$ is ${\displaystyle g_{i}/g_{j}\exp {(E_{j}-E_{i})/(kT)},}$ where ${\displaystyle g_{i}}$ and ${\displaystyle g_{j}}$ are the degeneracy of the state ${\displaystyle i}$ and that of ${\displaystyle j}$, respectively, ${\displaystyle E_{i}}$ and ${\displaystyle E_{j}}$ their energies, ${\displaystyle k}$ the Boltzmann constant and ${\displaystyle T}$ the system's temperature. From this, it is readily derived that ${\displaystyle g_{i}B_{ij}=g_{j}B_{ji}}$ and

${\displaystyle A_{ij}={\frac {8\pi h\nu ^{3}}{c^{3}}}B_{ij}.}$

The ${\displaystyle A_{ij}}$ and ${\displaystyle B_{ij}}$ are collectively known as the Einstein coefficients.[82]

Einstein could not fully justify his rate equations, but claimed that it should be possible to calculate the coefficients ${\displaystyle A_{ij}}$, ${\displaystyle B_{ji}}$ and ${\displaystyle B_{ij}}$ once physicists had obtained "mechanics and electrodynamics modified to accommodate the quantum hypothesis".[83] Not long thereafter, in 1926, Paul Dirac derived the ${\displaystyle B_{ij}}$ rate constants by using a semiclassical approach,[84] and, in 1927, succeeded in deriving all the rate constants from first principles within the framework of quantum theory.[85][86] Dirac's work was the foundation of quantum electrodynamics, i.e., the quantization of the electromagnetic field itself. Dirac's approach is also called second quantization or quantum field theory;[87][88][89] earlier quantum mechanical treatments only treat material particles as quantum mechanical, not the electromagnetic field.

Einstein was troubled by the fact that his theory seemed incomplete, since it did not determine the direction of a spontaneously emitted photon. A probabilistic nature of light-particle motion was first considered by Newton in his treatment of birefringence and, more generally, of the splitting of light beams at interfaces into a transmitted beam and a reflected beam. Newton hypothesized that hidden variables in the light particle determined which of the two paths a single photon would take.[41] Similarly, Einstein hoped for a more complete theory that would leave nothing to chance, beginning his separation[54] from quantum mechanics. Ironically, Max Born's probabilistic interpretation of the wave function[90][91] was inspired by Einstein's later work searching for a more complete theory.[92]

Light that travels through transparent matter does so at a lower speed than c, the speed of light in vacuum. The factor by which the speed is decreased is called the refractive index of the material. In a classical wave picture, the slowing can be explained by the light inducing electric polarization in the matter, the polarized matter radiating new light, and that new light interfering with the original light wave to form a delayed wave. In a particle picture, the slowing can instead be described as a blending of the photon with quantum excitations of the matter to produce quasi-particles known as polariton (see this list for some other quasi-particles); this polariton has a nonzero effective mass, which means that it cannot travel at c. Light of different frequencies may travel through matter at different speeds; this is called dispersion (not to be confused with scattering). In some cases, it can result in extremely slow speeds of light in matter. The effects of photon interactions with other quasi-particles may be observed directly in Raman scattering and Brillouin scattering.[112]

Photons can be scattered by matter. For example, photons engage in so many collisions on the way from the core of the Sun that radiant energy can take about a million years to reach the surface;[113] however, once in open space, a photon takes only 8.3 minutes to reach Earth.[114]

Photons can also be absorbed by nuclei, atoms or molecules, provoking transitions between their energy levels. A classic example is the molecular transition of retinal (C₂₀H₂₈O), which is responsible for vision, as discovered in 1958 by Nobel laureate biochemist George Wald and co-workers. The absorption provokes a cis–trans isomerization that, in combination with other such transitions, is transduced into nerve impulses. The absorption of photons can even break chemical bonds, as in the photodissociation of chlorine; this is the subject of photochemistry.[115][116]

Photons have many applications in technology. These examples are chosen to illustrate applications of photons per se, rather than general optical devices such as lenses, etc. that could operate under a classical theory of light. The laser is an extremely important application and is discussed above under stimulated emission.

Individual photons can be detected by several methods. The classic photomultiplier tube exploits the photoelectric effect: a photon of sufficient energy strikes a metal plate and knocks free an electron, initiating an ever-amplifying avalanche of electrons. Semiconductor charge-coupled device chips use a similar effect: an incident photon generates a charge on a microscopic capacitor that can be detected. Other detectors such as Geiger counters use the ability of photons to ionize gas molecules contained in the device, causing a detectable change of conductivity of the gas.[117]

Planck's energy formula ${\displaystyle E=h\nu }$ is often used by engineers and chemists in design, both to compute the change in energy resulting from a photon absorption and to determine the frequency of the light emitted from a given photon emission. For example, the emission spectrum of a gas-discharge lamp can be altered by filling it with (mixtures of) gases with different electronic energy level configurations.[118]

Under some conditions, an energy transition can be excited by "two" photons that individually would be insufficient. This allows for higher resolution microscopy, because the sample absorbs energy only in the spectrum where two beams of different colors overlap significantly, which can be made much smaller than the excitation volume of a single beam (see two-photon excitation microscopy). Moreover, these photons cause less damage to the sample, since they are of lower energy.[119]

In some cases, two energy transitions can be coupled so that, as one system absorbs a photon, another nearby system "steals" its energy and re-emits a photon of a different frequency. This is the basis of fluorescence resonance energy transfer, a technique that is used in molecular biology to study the interaction of suitable proteins.[120]

Several different kinds of hardware random number generators involve the detection of single photons. In one example, for each bit in the random sequence that is to be produced, a photon is sent to a beam-splitter. In such a situation, there are two possible outcomes of equal probability. The actual outcome is used to determine whether the next bit in the sequence is "0" or "1".[121][122]

Much research has been devoted to applications of photons in the field of quantum optics. Photons seem well-suited to be elements of an extremely fast quantum computer, and the quantum entanglement of photons is a focus of research. Nonlinear optical processes are another active research area, with topics such as two-photon absorption, self-phase modulation, modulational instability and optical parametric oscillators. However, such processes generally do not require the assumption of photons per se; they may often be modeled by treating atoms as nonlinear oscillators. The nonlinear process of spontaneous parametric down conversion is often used to produce single-photon states. Finally, photons are essential in some aspects of optical communication, especially for quantum cryptography.[123]

Two-photon physics studies interactions between photons, which are rare. In 2018, MIT researchers announced the discovery of bound photon triplets, which may involve polaritons.[124][125]

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