Robert Jenkinson, 2nd Earl of Liverpool

He won election to the House of Commons in 1790 for Rye, a seat he would hold until 1803; at the time, however, he was below the age of assent to Parliament, so he refrained from taking his seat and spent the following winter and early spring in an extended tour of the continent. This tour took in the Netherlands and Italy; at its conclusion he was old enough to take his seat in Parliament. It is not clear exactly when he entered the Commons, but as his twenty-first birthday was not reached until almost the end of the 1791 session, it is possible that he waited until the following year.

With the help of his father's influence and his political talent, he rose relatively fast in the Tory government. In February 1792, he gave the reply to Samuel Whitbread's critical motion on the government's Russian policy. He delivered several other speeches during the session, and was a strong opposer of abolitionism and William Wilberforce. He served as a member of the Board of Control for India from 1793 to 1796.

In the defence movement that followed the outbreak of hostilities with France, Jenkinson, was one of the first of the ministers of the government to enlist in the militia. He became a colonel in the Cinque Ports Fencibles in 1794, and his military duties led to frequent absences from the Commons. His regiment was sent to Scotland in 1796, and he was quartered for a time in Dumfries.

In 1797, the then Lord Hawkesbury was the cavalry commander of the Cinque Ports Light Dragoons who ran amok following a protest against the Militia Act at Tranent in East Lothian; twelve civilians were killed. Author James Miller wrote in 1844 that "His lordship was blamed for remaining at Haddington, as his presence might have prevented the outrages of the soldiery."[11]

His parliamentary attendance also suffered from his reaction when his father angrily opposed his projected marriage with Lady Louisa Hervey, daughter of the Earl of Bristol. After Pitt and the King had intervened on his behalf, the wedding finally took place at Wimbledon on 25 March 1795. In May 1796, when his father was created Earl of Liverpool, he took the courtesy title of Lord Hawkesbury and remained in the Commons. He became Baron Hawkesbury in his own right and was elevated to the House of Lords in November 1803, as recognition of his work as Foreign Secretary. He also served as Master of the Mint (1799–1801).[8]

As the question of Catholic emancipation came apparent and as the King refused to pass on to law, in response, Pitt resigned as prime minister as a result. This departure left the King to choose a successor and so appointed one of Pitt's prominent allies, Henry Addington, as the new prime minister. When Addington's government came to power, the young Liverpool entered the cabinet in 1801 as Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs.[8] Addington's main political agenda was peace and promised that as prime minister that, he will negotiate with the French. In this capacity he was entrusted by Addington negotiate with the France and pursue an immediate peace deal, which he set to do, as his first duty.[12]

The French Revolutionary Wars begun as a direct result of the French Revolution, of which the aftermath saw a growing sentiment of radicalism and a shock wave of political turmoil being send across Europe. At the beginning of the Revolution, the British government led by William Pitt opposed its ideology and the belief that it would undermine the principles of Britain's established constitutional monarchy. Also the French revolutionary ideology heavily opposed such forms of government containing a monarchy, while favouring a republican form of government, which Britain and other countries in Europe opposed and wished to end such ideologies from spreading elsewhere. What followed was a decade long series of wars, known as the Coalition wars that resulted in Britain and its allies being defeated or being pushed to the position of economic crisis and so many opted to peace.[13]

As Foreign Secretary, Liverpool has to face the crisis war in Europe and negotiate peace as soon as possible. As Britain and its allies in the continent were unable to defeat France in any way and the long duration of the war itself, led to a period of instability as the British war effort has been over overwhelmed by nearly a decade of war without any results. As per Addington's wishes, Liverpool opened negotiations with France. Liverpool immediately, first, communicated with the French commissary for prisoners of war in London, Louis Guillaume Otto, through whom he could contact and agree to Napoleon Bonaparte’s earlier proposals.[13]

Liverpool stated that he “wanted to open discussions on terms for a peace agreement”, but Otto, who was under direct and strict orders from Bonaparte, begun to open negotiations by mid-September. Despite his efforts, negotiations seemed fruitless with Otto and unhappy with this result, Liverpool sent diplomat Anthony Merry to Paris to open a second round of negotiations with his own French counterpart, French Foreign Minister Talleyrand by mid-September. By this time, written negotiations followed and progressed to the point Otto met shaft a preliminary agreement on 30 September and finally in London, which was finally published the next day. Thus signing the Treaty of Amiens and concluding the end of the War of the Second Coalition.[13]

Most of his time as Foreign Secretary was spent dealing with the nations of France and the United States. But this was cut short, as shortly afterwards, the Addington government came under attack from the opposition and was criticised for its lack of credibility when war resumed yet again in 1803 and the start of the War of the Third Coalition. Soon the government fell into disarray and quickly led to the reappointment of Pitt as prime minister.[13]

By 1809 the political situation in Europe have changed dramatically. Napoleon has conquered most, if not almost, all of Europe except for Russia, Austria, Eastern Europe and Northern Europe. The war against Napoleonic France did not improve for Britain's war effort and is by this point, Five coalitions have failed to defeat Napoleon or bring down France. This did not help Britain overcome the Continental System, issued by the 1806 Berlin Decree, which forbade most countries of Europe from Engaging in trade and commerce with the British and prevented them from trading British goods. This not only effected Britain and all countries as they were dependent on British supplies, mainly British allies. But to prevent Britain falling to an economic crisis, Liverpool as War Secretary has raised loans to help the Britain win the war and also help Britain's allies in need. At home, with a combination of strong government finances and sustain financial attrition was able to save Britain from falling behind the economic fallout. And by using the Royal Navy to undermine French naval activities, a blockade across the English Channel and with persistent but moderate military pressure on France would ultimately bear fruit and will win the war.[13]

When Perceval was assassinated in May 1812, George, the Prince Regent, successively tried to appoint four men to succeed him, but failed; Liverpool, the fifth choice for the post, reluctantly accepted office on 8 June 1812.[15][8] The cabinet proposed Liverpool as his successor with Lord Castlereagh as leader in the Commons but after an adverse vote in the Lower House, they subsequently both gave their resignations. The Prince Regent, however, found it impossible to form a different coalition and confirmed Liverpool as prime minister on 8 June. No successor, in over 200 years, has been younger. Liverpool's government contained some of the future great leaders of Britain, such as Lord Castlereagh, George Canning, the Duke of Wellington, Robert Peel and William Huskisson. Liverpool is considered a skilled politician, and held together the liberal and reactionary wings of the Tory party, which his successors, Canning, Goderich and Wellington, had great difficulty with.

At the beginging of his premiership, Liverpool was faced directly with conflict, the War of 1812 with the United States and the final campaigns of the Napoleonic Wars were fought during his governance. The Peninsular Campaigns saw the British army led by the Duke of Wellington drive the French out of Spain and Portugal. At the peace negotiations that followed, Liverpool's main concern was to obtain a European settlement that would ensure the independence of the Netherlands, Spain and Portugal, and confine France inside its pre-war frontiers without damaging its national integrity. To achieve this, he was ready to return all British colonial conquests. Within this broad framework, he gave Castlereagh discretion at the Congress of Vienna, the next most important event of his ministry. At the congress he gave prompt approval for Castlereagh's bold initiative in making the defensive alliance with Austria and France in January 1815. In the aftermath of the defeat of Napoleon – who had briefly been exiled to the island Elba and escaped exile and returned to rule France. The allies immediately begun mobilizing their armies to fight the escaped emperor and an combined Anglo-Allied army was send under the command of Wellington to assist Britain's allies. Within few months, Napoleon was decisively defeated at the Battle of Waterloo and peace followed through the now exhausted continent.

The British Empire at the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815

The Congress of Vienna by Jean-Baptiste Isabey, 1819

After the Battle of Waterloo saw the conclusion of the War of the Seventh Coalition and the ushering in of peace in Europe, after the continuous decade-long wars that were fought as a direct aftermath of the French Revolution in 1789, now ceased. Despite this, Napoleon's conquests left a defining situation in Europe and all countries of Europe to fill or reconstruct many of its cracks. Soon after the victory at Waterloo and peace was secured, the nations of Europe came together to talk of securing peace. The Austrian Foreign Minister Klemens Von Metternich, a skilled diplomat and capable politician, called on European countries to gather at Vienna to negotiate a peacekeeping effort, with the aim of establishing a lasting peace. The main powers: Britain,Austria, Prussia, Russia and last the defeated France all met at Vienna for negotiations and representing their perspective countries. Lord Liverpool, as prime minister, decided to a send one of his most skilled ministers to attend the peace assembly in France, and so appointed his Foreign Secretary, Lord Castlereagh, to be sent to Vienna. The gathering of nations at the Austrian city, is known as the Congress of Vienna and was attended by some of Europe's most influential diplomats and politicians and the result of this congressional meeting was the establishment of a peaceful Europe. So, as a direct result, it saw the maps of Europe being redrawn to the previous borders there before the war, opposing or eradicating radicalism and liberal ideals, such as that of the French Revolution, from spreading across the continent and securing a lasting peace that would see no major conflict being ever fought between the nations of Europe. This became known as the Concert of Europe and its ideals of a longstanding peace and political landscape would endure to the early 20th Century until the start of the First World War in 1914.[13]

The British Empire in 1815 and throughout Liverpool's premiership was thriving and expanding across the globe and was raising as greatest colonial empire of all time. As the 20-year long war in Europe ended with peace being established in Europe, Britain finally established itself as a main power, alongside Austria, Russia and France. But by this point, Britain proved itself to be a far more superior power than any other nation in Europe. Through its vast empire, strong economy and military might, it made Britain one of the earliest known world power with establishing a hegemony over the globe. Through trade and commerce, Britain accumulated large amounts of wealth and through its industrialisation, mass production of cotton, iron, wheat increased dramatically. Britain's colonial endeavours saw British armies conquering and subjugating new territories. In South Asia, saw British territories gradually expanded far and beyond. The annexation of Nepal during the Anglo-Nepalese War saw it incorporated to British India as a result. Britain also expanded its borders within the Indian frontiers during the Third Anglo-Maratha War against the long-time British enemy of the Maratha Confederacy. In modern-day Myanmar, conflict with the Third Burmese Empire led to the First Anglo-Burmese War, which saw the strategic weakening of the Burma and led to the cessation of territories in Assam, Manipur, Arakan and other territories south of the Salween River as a result. Furthermore, in South Africa, the complete integration of the Cape Colony in South Africa and victory over the Xhosa tribes in the Fourth Xhosa War in which the Colony were able to push the tribes beyond the Fish River and reverse many of the Xhosa's past success. During Liverpool's tenure as Prime Minister, saw the establishment of a permanent penal colony in Australia and new settlements in New Zealand.[13]

Inevitably taxes rose to compensate for borrowing and to pay off the national debt, which led to widespread disturbance between 1812 and 1822. Around this time, the group known as Luddites began industrial action. Throughout the period 1811–1816, there was a series of incidents of machine-breaking and many of those convicted faced execution.[12]

Agriculture remained a problem because good harvests between 1819 and 1822 had brought down prices and evoked a cry for greater protection. When the powerful agricultural lobby in Parliament demanded protection in the aftermath, Liverpool gave in to political necessity. Under governmental supervision the notorious Corn Laws of 1815 were passed prohibiting the import of foreign wheat until the domestic price reached a minimum accepted level. Liverpool, however, was in principle a free-trader, but had to accept the bill as a temporary measure to ease the transition to peacetime conditions. His chief economic problem during his time as Prime Minister was that of the nation's finances.

The interest on the national debt, massively swollen by the enormous expenditure of the final war years, together with the war pensions, absorbed the greater part of normal government revenue. The refusal of the House of Commons in 1816 to continue the wartime income tax left ministers with no immediate alternative but to go on with the ruinous system of borrowing to meet necessary annual expenditure. Liverpool eventually facilitated a return to the gold standard in 1819.

Liverpool argued for the abolition of the wider slave trade at the Congress of Vienna, and at home he supported the repeal of the Combination Laws banning workers from combining into trade unions in 1824.[16] In the latter year the newly formed Royal National Institution for the Preservation of Life from Shipwreck, later the RNLI, obtained Liverpool as its first president.[17]

Print of the Peterloo massacre published by Richard Carlile

The reports of the secret committees he obtained in 1817 pointed to the existence of an organised network of disaffected political societies, especially in the manufacturing areas. Liverpool told Peel that the disaffection in the country seemed even worse than in 1794. Because of a largely perceived threat to the government, temporary legislation was introduced. He suspended habeas corpus in both Great Britain (1817) and Ireland (1822). Following the Peterloo Massacre in 1819, his government imposed the repressive Six Acts legislation which limited, among other things, free speech and the right to gather for peaceful demonstration. In 1820, as a result of these measures, Liverpool and other cabinet ministers were targeted for assassination. They escaped harm when the Cato Street conspiracy was foiled.[18]

During the 19th century, and, in particular, during Liverpool's time in office, Catholic emancipation was a source of great conflict. In 1805, in his first important statement of his views on the subject, Liverpool had argued that the special relationship of the monarch with the Church of England, and the refusal of Roman Catholics to take the oath of supremacy, justified their exclusion from political power. Throughout his career, he remained opposed to the idea of Catholic emancipation, though he did see marginal concessions as important to the stability of the nation.

The decision of 1812 to remove the issue from collective cabinet policy, followed in 1813 by the defeat of Grattan's Roman Catholic Relief Bill, brought a period of calm. Liverpool supported marginal concessions such as the admittance of English Roman Catholics to the higher ranks of the armed forces, the magistracy, and the parliamentary franchise; but he remained opposed to their participation in parliament itself. In the 1820s, pressure from the liberal wing of the Commons and the rise of the Catholic Association in Ireland revived the controversy.

By the date of Sir Francis Burdett's Catholic Relief Bill in 1825, emancipation looked a likely success. Indeed, the success of the bill in the Commons in April, followed by Robert Peel's tender of resignation, finally persuaded Liverpool that he should retire. When Canning made a formal proposal that the cabinet should back the bill, Liverpool was convinced that his administration had come to its end. George Canning then succeeded him as Prime Minister. Catholic emancipation however was not fully implemented until the major changes of the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829 under the leadership of the Duke of Wellington and Sir Robert Peel, and with the work of the Catholic Association established in 1823.[19]

• Late 1812 – Lord Camden leaves the Cabinet
• September 1814 – William Wellesley-Pole (Lord Maryborough from 1821), the Master of the Mint, enters the Cabinet
• February 1816 – George Canning succeeds Lord Buckinghamshire at the Board of Control
• January 1818 – F. J. Robinson, the President of the Board of Trade, enters the Cabinet
• January 1819 – The Duke of Wellington succeeds Lord Mulgrave as Master-General of the Ordnance. Lord Mulgrave becomes minister without portfolio
• 1820 – Lord Mulgrave leaves the cabinet
• January 1821 – Charles Bathurst succeeds Canning as President of the Board of Control, remaining also at the Duchy of Lancaster
• January 1822 – Robert Peel succeeds Lord Sidmouth as Home Secretary
• February 1822 – Charles Williams-Wynn succeeds Charles Bathurst at the Board of Control. Bathurst remains at the Duchy of Lancaster and in the Cabinet
• September 1822 – Following the suicide of Lord Londonderry, George Canning becomes Foreign Secretary and Leader of the House of Commons
• January 1823 – Vansittart, elevated to the peerage as Lord Bexley, succeeds Charles Bathurst as Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. F. J. Robinson succeeds Vansittart as Chancellor of the Exchequer. He is succeeded at the Board of Trade by William Huskisson
• 1823 – Lord Maryborough, the Master of the Mint, leaves the Cabinet. His successor in the office is not a Cabinet member