Mencius

Mencius's mother is often considered an exemplary female figure in Chinese culture. One of the most famous traditional Chinese four-character idioms is 孟母三遷 (pinyin: mèngmǔ-sānqiān; lit. 'Mencius's mother moves three times'); this saying refers to the legend that Mencius's mother moved houses three times before finding a location that she felt was suitable for the child's upbringing. As an expression, the idiom refers to the importance of finding the proper environment for raising children.

Mencius's father, Meng Ji (孟激), died when Mencius was very young. His mother Zhǎng (仉) or Meng Mu (孟母) raised her son alone. They were inferior. At first, they lived by a cemetery, where the mother found her son imitating the paid mourners in funeral processions. Therefore, the mother decided to move. The next house was near a market in the town. There, the boy began to imitate the cries of merchants (merchants were despised in early China). So the mother moved to a house next to a school. Inspired by the scholars and students, Mencius began to study. His mother decided to remain, and Mencius became a scholar.

Another story further illustrates Mencius's mother's emphasis on her son's education. As the story goes, when Mencius was young, he was truant from school. His mother responded to his apparent disregard for his education by taking up a pair of scissors and cutting the cloth she had been weaving in front of him. This was intended to illustrate that one cannot stop a task midway, and her example inspired Mencius to be diligent in his studies.

There is another legend about his mother and his wife, involving a time when his wife was at home alone and was discovered by Mencius not to be sitting correctly. Mencius thought his wife had violated a rite and demanded a divorce. His mother claimed that it was written in The Book of Rites that before a person entered a room, he should announce his imminent presence loudly to let others prepare for his arrival; as he had not done that in this case, the person who had violated the rite was Mencius himself. Eventually, Mencius admitted his fault.

She is one of 125 women whose biographies have been included in the Biographies of Exemplary Women, written by Liu Xiang.

Duke Huan of Lu's son through Qingfu (慶父) was an ancestor of Mencius. He was descended from Duke Yang of the State of Lu (魯煬公). Duke Yang was the son of Bo Qin, who was the son of the Duke of Zhou of the Zhou dynasty royal family. The genealogy is found in the Mencius family tree (孟子世家大宗世系).[8][9][10]

Mencius's descendants lived in Zoucheng in the Mencius Family Mansion, where the Mencius Temple was also built and also a cemetery for Mencius's descendants.

Meng Haoran and Meng Jiao were descendants of Mencius who lived during the Tang dynasty.

During the Ming dynasty, one of Mencius's descendants was given a hereditary title at the Hanlin Academy by the Emperor. The title they held was Wujing Boshi (Doctor of the five classics, 五經博士; 五經博士; Wǔjīng Bóshì).[11][12][13] In 1452 Wujing Boshi was bestowed upon the offspring of Mengzi-Meng Xiwen (孟希文) 56th generation[14][15][16][17][18] and Yan Hui-Yan Xihui (顔希惠) 59th generation, the same was bestowed on the offspring of Zhou Dunyi-Zhou Mian (週冕) 12th generation, the two Cheng brothers (Cheng Hao and Cheng Yi-Chen Keren (程克仁) 17th generation), Zhu Xi-Zhu Ting (朱梴) 9th generation, in 1456–1457, in 1539 the same was awarded to Zeng Can's offspring-Zeng Zhicui (曾質粹) 60th generation, in 1622 the offspring of Zhang Zai received the title and in 1630 the offspring of Shao Yong.[19]

One of Mencius's direct descendants was Dr. Meng Chih (Anglicised as Dr. Paul Chih Meng), former director of China House and director of the China Institute in 1944. Time magazine reported Dr. Meng's age that year as 44. Dr. Meng died in Arizona in 1990 at the age of 90.[20] North Carolina's Davidson College and Columbia University were his alma mater. He was attending a speech along with Confucius's descendant H. H. Kung.[21]

In the Republic of China there is an office called the "Sacrificial Official to Mencius" which is held by a descendant of Mencius, like the post of "Sacrificial Official to Zengzi" for a descendant of Zengzi, "Sacrificial Official to Yan Hui" for a descendant of Yan Hui, and the post of "Sacrificial Official to Confucius, held by a descendant of Confucius.[22][23][24]

The descendants of Mencius still use generation poems for their names given to them by the Ming and Qing Emperors along with the descendants of the other Four Sages (四氏): Confucius, Zengzi, and Yan Hui.[25][26]

Historical sites related to his descendants include the Meng family mansion (孟府), Temple of Mencius (孟廟), and Cemetery of Mencius (孟林).

One of Mencius's descendants moved to Korea and founded the Sinchang Maeng clan.

Mencius expounds on the concept that human is naturally righteous and humane. It is the influence of society that causes bad moral character. Mencius describes this in the context of educating rulers and citizens about the nature of man. "He who exerts his mind to the utmost knows his nature"[27] and "the way of learning is none other than finding the lost mind."[28]

Mencius used the example of a child falling down a well to show innate goodness. Witnesses of this event immediately feel

alarm and distress, not to gain friendship with the child's parents, nor to seek the praise of their neighbors and friends, nor because they dislike the reputation [of lack of humanity if they did not rescue the child]...

The feeling of commiseration is the beginning of humanity; the sense of shame and dislike is the beginning of righteousness; the importance of deference and compliance is the beginning of propriety; and the importance of right or wrong is the beginning of wisdom.

Men have these Four Beginnings just as they have their four limbs. Having these Four Beginnings but saying they cannot develop them is to destroy themselves.[29]

Human nature has an innate tendency towards goodness, but moral rightness cannot be explained in detail. This is why merely external controls always fail in improving society—true improvement results from educational cultivation in favorable environments. Likewise, harmful environments tend to corrupt the human will. This, however, is not proof of innate evil because a clear-thinking person would avoid causing harm to others. This position of Mencius puts him between Confucians such as Xunzi who thought people were innately evil, and Taoists who believed humans did not need cultivation; they just needed to accept their innate, natural, and effortless goodness. The four beginnings/sprouts could grow and develop or fail. In this way, Mencius synthesized integral parts of Taoism into Confucianism. Individual effort was needed to cultivate oneself, but one's natural tendencies were good. The object of education is the cultivation of benevolence, otherwise known as Ren.

Painting of Mengzi by Kanō Sansetsu.
Japan, Edo period, 1632.

According to Mencius, education must awaken the innate abilities of the human mind. He denounced memorization and advocated active interrogation of the text, saying, "One who believes all of a book would be better off without books" (盡信書，則不如無書, from 孟子.盡心下). One should check for internal consistency by comparing sections and debating the probability of factual accounts by comparing them with experience.

Mencius also believed in the power of Destiny in shaping the roles of human beings in society. What is destined cannot be contrived by the human intellect or foreseen. Destiny is shown when a path arises that is both unforeseen and constructive. Future should be distinct from Fate. Mencius denied that Heaven would protect a person regardless of his actions, saying, "One who understands Destiny will not stand beneath a tottering wall." The proper path is natural and unforced. This path must also be maintained because "Unused pathways are covered with weeds." One who follows Destiny will live a long and prosperous life. One who rebels against Destiny will die before his time.

Mencius emphasized the significance of the common citizens in the state. While Confucianism generally regards rulers highly, he argued that it is acceptable for subjects to overthrow or even kill a ruler who harshly ignores the people's needs and rules. This is because a ruler who does not rule justly is no longer a true ruler. Speaking of the overthrow of the wicked King Zhou of Shang, Mencius said, "I have merely heard of killing a villain, Zhou, but I have not heard of murdering [him as] the ruler."[30]

This saying should not be taken as an instigation to violence against authorities but as an application of Confucian philosophy to society. Confucianism requires clarifying what may be reasonably expected in any relationship. All relationships should be beneficial, but each has a principle or inner logic. A ruler must justify his position by acting benevolently before she can expect reciprocation from the people. In this view, a king is like a steward. Although Confucius admired kings of great accomplishment, Mencius clarified the proper hierarchy of human society. Although a king has presumably higher status than a commoner, he is subordinate to the masses of people and the resources of the community. Otherwise, there would be an implied disregard for the potential of human society heading into the future. One is significant only for what one gives, not for what one takes.

Mencius distinguished between superior men who recognize and follow the virtues of righteousness and benevolence and inferior men who do not. He suggested that superior men considered only righteousness, not benefits. That assumes "permanent property" to uphold common morality.[31] To secure benefits for the disadvantaged and the aged, he advocated free trade, low tax rates, and an equal sharing of the tax burden.[32]

Regarding the Confucian perspective of the marketplace, more about Confucius’ thoughts from Mencius than from the philosopher himself are learned. The government should have a mostly hands-off approach regarding the marketplace.[33] This was in part, to prevent state-run monopolies. However, it was also the state's responsibility to protect against future monopolies that might come into existence. Mencius also advocated for no import taxes; the market was to exchange for what you lacked, so taxing merchants importing goods would ultimately hurt the villagers. The thought behind this is that people are inherently good and rational and can be trusted to regulate themselves, so price gouging or deception would not be an issue. Taxes on the property were acceptable and to be the only means by which the dukes and states would collect money. They did not need to collect much because taxes were only for supplemental funds.[33] These taxes were also progressive, meaning the families owning larger, more fertile land would pay more than the families with uniform land allotments. Scarcity is an issue in any market; however, Mencius emphasizes reframing the idea of a scarce resource.[34] Instead of scarce, resources are to be seen as abundant. Resources are gained through work ethic, not by any other means, so there are no unfair competitions or gains. To preserve these natural resources, they needed to be used or harvested according to their cycles of growth or replenishment. In many cases, posterity has priority over profit.[35]