Cycling in the Philippines

Bicycles were first introduced to the country in the 1880s, among other 20th century technologies introduced during the Spanish colonial occupation of the Philippines.[1] American author Joseph Earle Stevens, who was living in Manila at the time, described cycling as a booming mode of transport on the streets of Manila, especially among the local mestizo population, as well as bicycle races that took place in Luneta, Manila in his journal entries in 1894.[2] While in exile in Dapitan, Philippine national hero Jose Rizal wrote a letter on December 18, 1895, to his mother, requesting her to buy him a second-hand bicycle that he could use for his trips to town.[3]

Following the Spanish Empire's secession of the Philippines to the United States, bicycles made in the United States found their way into the local streets.[4][5]

One of the earliest legislation on the regulation of bicycles was in 1901, where the Taft Commission under United States Army Provost Marshal General Arthur MacArthur Jr. approved City Ordinance No. 11, or "An Ordinance Relating to the Use of the Public Streets and Places of Manila" for the city of Manila. Under Section 21 of this ordinance, bicycles were regarded as vehicles on public streets and were to adhere to traffic ordinances and regulations. Bicycles were required to carry a bell, which was to be sounded when approaching a street intersection or crossing, or any vehicle or pedestrian occupying the street. Bicycles were also required to carry a light when in use during the night.[6] Bicycle registration also took place, with over 2,000 bicycles being registered until registration was halted in 1906.[5]

The use of bicycles as a recreational activity were marketed in the country as early as the 1920s, with a July 1926 issue of the Philippine Education Magazine promoting bicycle-riding as an economic mode of transport with health benefits.[5]

Imperial Japanese Army soldiers entering Manila on bicycles, as the city surrenders to the Japanese and declares itself an "open city" to prevent further destruction.

During the Commonwealth period, German engineer Frank Ephraim wrote in his autobiography Escape to Manila: From Nazi Tyranny to Japanese Terror that before the second World War in the Philippines, door-to-door salespeople using bicycles were a common sight on the streets of Manila. He also noted that bicycle theft was rampant during this period as bicycle owners would use heavier and more expensive chains and padlocks to prevent their bicycles from being stolen. This however, was often to no avail as bicycle thieves were typically able to cut the chains or pick the locks,[7]^: 105 a problem that still persists to the present day.

It was estimated that by 1942, there were over 12,750 bicycles being used as a mode of transport by Manila's then population of 9,000 people, including those in the outlying areas.[8] During the second World War and the Japanese occupation of the Philippines, the Imperial Japanese Army used bicycle brigades during invasions and patrols,[7]^: 112 with each officer armed with a sheathed katana and a pistol.[7]^: 90

By 1944, the occupying Japanese forces seized many carts, bicycles, tricycles, pedicabs, and pushcarts from the local population, crippling local public transportation.[8]

Class I bicycle lane and jogging lane along the Iloilo Diversion Road in Iloilo City

Class I bicycle lanes established along the Marikina–Infanta Highway in Santolan, Pasig

Since then, the bicycle continued to serve as a mode of transport for Filipinos, but dwarfed by the popularity of the automobile, motorized tricycles, and the jeepney as a primary mode of transport. As a result, the use of bicycles became more limited to areas with little motorized road traffic, as cycling remained popular as a sport and for cyclotourism.[9]

As the road system and inefficient public transportation struggled to cope with population booms and increasing car ownership, people across different socioeconomic backgrounds turned to cycling as a mode of transport. However, the lack of cycling infrastructure in cities has caused many altercations between bicycles and motorized vehicles, leading to growing clamor for active transportation infrastructure to promote cycling as a safe and sustainable mode of transportation and alleviate traffic congestion in cities.[10][11]

On December 26, 2008, Philippine president Gloria Macapagal Arroyo signed Executive Order No. 774 s. 2008, reorganizing the Presidential Task Force on Climate Change earlier established in 2007 to improve the country's response to the climate crisis. The order also created a Task Group on Fossil Fuels (TGFF), headed by the then-Department of Transportation and Communications (DOTC) to develop a new mobility paradigm favoring non-motorized locomotion, following the simple principle of "those who have less in wheels must have more in road".[12] This was followed by Administrative Order No. 254 s. 2009, which mandated the DOTC and the TGFF to create a "national environmentally sustainable transport strategy" for the country.[13] Later that year, these responsibilities were then absorbed by the Climate Change Commission (CCC) created through Republic Act No. 9729, or the Climate Change Act of 2009.[14]

Local government units have since also implemented cycling infrastructure and initiatives in their own cities and municipalities, such as Marikina, Pasig, and Quezon City in Metro Manila, Iloilo City in Iloilo, and Vigan in Ilocos Sur,[15] while other cities such as Mandaluyong included plans to establish bicycle routes around their cities.[16]

On November 15, 2012, the Metropolitan Manila Development Authority (MMDA) and Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH) opened a 550 meters (0.34 mi) bidirectional bicycle lane on the sidewalk of Roxas Boulevard itself from Quirino Avenue to the Cultural Center of the Philippines Complex. The MMDA also opened a 1.7 kilometers (1.1 mi) bidirectional bicycle lane on Remedios Street from Remedios Circle to Roxas Boulevard, designed to complement its Children's Road Safety Park as part of its advocacy to "educate children on traffic rules and discipline".[17] A bicycle-sharing pilot program was also to be conducted between the Ayala and Magallanes MRT stations where commuters could avail 48 bicycles to use for free between the two stations.[17] More bicycle lanes were also opened by the MMDA along the sidewalks of specific segments of EDSA, Commonwealth Avenue, and the Marikina-Infanta Highway.[11]

Throughout 2018 and 2019, the Quezon City government also began establishing bicycle lanes along several major roads in the city. In an interview, Quezon City mayor Herbert Bautista also floated the idea of designating the inner roads of residential subdivisions as cycling corridors.[18]

On February 7, 2019, the DPWH inaugurated the country's first protected bicycle lane along a national highway, located along the Laguna Lake Highway of Circumferential Road 6. The bicycle lane is a 3-meter-wide (9.8 ft) bi-directional bikeway spanning 5.8 kilometers (3.6 mi) of the 6.94 kilometers (4.31 mi) highway, and is physically separated from the highway with a planting strip.[19]

During the COVID-19 pandemic in early 2020, public transport was suspended and subsequently reopened at a limited capacity. As a result, cycling as a mode of transport grew in popularity among Filipinos who needed means to go to and from their workplace safely and efficiently. This, alongside the decreased road traffic in many urban areas as a result of the community quarantine classifications led to the fast-tracked development of active transport infrastructure, such as protected bike lanes and bicycle parking amidst the pandemic, further encouraging bike ridership.[20]

With the country transitioning into the looser general community quarantine and in anticipation of people returning to work, the MMDA, in coordination with cyclists and scooter riders pushing for permanent active transport infrastructure, conducted a dry run of pop-up bicycle lanes along EDSA, the main thoroughfare in Metro Manila on July 3, 2020, coinciding with World Bicycle Day. The agency also vowed to support the provision of bicycle lanes across the metropolis.[21]

On August 19, 2020, the Department of Health, Department of Transportation, Department of the Interior and Local Government, and Department of Public Works and Highways through Joint Administrative Order No. 0001 s. 2020 issued guidelines on the proper use and promotion of active transport amidst and beyond the COVID-19 pandemic.[22]

On November 18, 2020, Philippine president Rodrigo Duterte signed Presidential Proclamation No. 1052 s. 2020, declaring every fourth Sunday of November as "National Bicycle Day".[23] The proclamation provides legitimacy to the "National Bicycle Day" initially organized by the National Bicycle Organization, a non-government organization that hosted the event annually since 2014.[24]

The Department of Transportation announced on November 28, 2021, coinciding with National Bicycle Day, that it would be working with Google to push for the inclusion of the nationwide bicycle lane network into Google Maps.[25]

In December 2022, the National Economic and Development Authority (NEDA) approved the Philippine Development Plan (PDP) for 2023 to 2028, which outlined that pedestrians and cyclists should be accorded the highest priority among all road users in transport-related infrastructure.[26][22]

A Class I bicycle lane with plant median and curb separation along Roxas Boulevard in Manila.

A Class I bicycle lane with plant median separation along the Davao City Coastal Road in Davao City.

Cyclists on a physically-separated Class II bicycle lane along EDSA in Quezon City.

Paint-separated Class II bicycle lane along Manuel L. Quezon National Highway in Lapu-Lapu City.

Paint-separated Class II bicycle lane along Elpidio Quirino Avenue in Davao City.

A dilapidated paint-marked bicycle lane established by the MMDA along Remedios Street, Malate, Manila

The Department of Public Works and Highways and the Department of Transportation through DPWH Department Order No. 88 series of 2020 defines bicycle lanes into three classes, based on prevailing road and traffic conditions. The order also provides that all new road and bridge construction and expansion projects must incorporate bicycle lanes with an absolute minimum width of 2.44 m (8.0 ft)[31][32] These guidelines were then updated in December 2022 through DPWH Department Order No. 263 series of 2022.[33]

Under these guidelines, the maximum slope grade of all bicycle lane crossings and Class I bicycle lanes should not exceed 5 percent, while Class II and Class III bicycle lanes must follow the slope grade of the roadway.[33]

These guidelines only apply to bicycle lanes set up by the national government and as such do not apply to bicycle lanes set up by local government units or private developments.

Class I bicycle lanes are shared use paths or bike paths, which are designated paths completely separated from the roadway that are designated for the exclusive use of bicycles or shared with pedestrians.[33]

The minimum clear width of a Class I bicycle lane is 3.00 m (9.84 ft), which may be widened to 4.3 m (14 ft) in high traffic areas or briefly narrowed to 1.50 to 2.44 m (4.9 to 8.0 ft) at narrow road sections. Class I bicycle lanes are separated from motor vehicle roadways by open spaces, have line markings delineating the paths for cycling and pedestrian traffic, and are recommended on roads with high traffic volume (annual average daily traffic or AADT of 6,000 to 8,000 vehicles or more) and an operating speed of 50 kilometers per hour (31 mph) or higher.[32][33]

Class II bicycle lanes are separated bicycle lanes that use pavement markings or physical separation to designate a portion of the road for exclusive use by bicycles.[33]

A unidirectional Class II bicycle lane has a minimum clear width of 2.44 m (8.0 ft) or briefly narrowed to 1.50 m (4.9 ft) at narrow road sections. It is distinguished by pavement markings using paint, or by physical separation using bollards, curbs, plant boxes, concrete barriers, or a median strip with elevation changes.[33]

Pavement markings are recommended on roads with low to moderate traffic volume (AADT of 3,000 to 6,000 vehicles) and an operating speed of 40 to 50 kilometers per hour (25 to 31 mph), while physical separation is recommended on roads with high traffic volume (an AADT of 6,000 to 8,000 vehicles or more) and an operating speed of 50 kilometers per hour (31 mph) or higher.[32] Class II bicycle lanes may also be supplemented with a 1 m (3.3 ft) buffer zone between the bicycle lane and other road lanes.[33]

Class III bicycle lanes are shared roadways, which are roads used by motor vehicles but are officially designated as bicycle routes.[33]

These are placed on roads with a lane width of 3.35 to 4.20 m (11.0 to 13.8 ft), operating speeds not exceeding 40 km/h (25 mph), low volume of traffic (AADT of not more than 3,000 vehicles), and limited carriageway width.[32] These routes are distinguished by signs encouraging road users to be mindful of cyclists. Class III bicycle lanes may also contain brief sections of non-exclusive 1.5 m (4.9 ft) painted bicycle lanes with broken lines to limit the movement of cycling traffic on narrow roads.[33]

Class III bicycle lanes may also be used as temporary bicycle lanes until more appropriate infrastructure can be implemented.[33]

Many mixed-use developments and planned communities owned and managed by private real estate companies across the country have also incorporated bicycle lanes in their developments. These bicycle lanes are typically not within the jurisdiction of the national or local governments but may be integrated into existing networks.

Some examples of private developments with bicycle lanes include Bonifacio Global City in Taguig,[34][35] the Megaworld Corporation's Arcovia City and Ortigas Land's Capitol Commons in Pasig,[36] and the Nuvali development of Ayala Land in Laguna.[37] Bicycle lanes are also present along Ayala Avenue, the main road of the Makati Central Business District in Makati.[38] Additionally, some shopping malls also have bicycle lanes in their vicinity, such as those at the SM Mall of Asia in Pasay and SM Seaside City in Cebu City of SM Supermalls.[39]

As part of the MMUTIS Capacity Enhancement Project (MUCEP) of the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) and the then-Department of Transportation and Communications, several household interviews on transport characteristics and patterns were conducted in Metro Manila from 2012 to 2014. The data from the MUCEP database reveals that 3,233 respondents from the household interviews made trips using bicycles. The respondents were predominantly male with a 12:1 ratio, consisted mainly of people from the 19 to 59 years old age brackets, and were mostly made by individuals with a personal monthly income of less than ₱10,000. Blue-collar workers comprised the majority of these respondents at 75.5 percent of respondents while white-collar workers only comprised 7.6 percent of respondents. Lastly, it was found that most respondents owned at least one bicycle and that the majority of them did not own a car or motorcycle.[40]

In partnership with the Department of Transportation, the KaLakBay (Ka-Lakad at Baysikleta) Project conducted bicycle counts for 16 hours on April 22, 2022 and road-side route choice surveys on April 22 and 29, 2022 along several major roads in Metro Manila.[40]

The bicycle counts counted 37,529 cyclists, most of which were male with a 25:1 ratio. It was also observed that 61.9 percent of were wearing helmets, in which higher helmet usage was observed in cities with bicycle helmet laws such as in Quezon City and Valenzuela.[40]

A total of 748 respondents were interviewed for the route choice surveys. Most respondents were also male with a 15:1 ratio, consisted of at least high school and college graduates, were mostly full-time employed, and were predominantly from individuals with a personal monthly income of less than ₱20,000. Survey respondents also predominantly use bicycles for work and home-errands, with 46 percent of trips made under 30 minutes and 37 percent of trips made within 1 to 2 hours. The surveys also reveal that only a third of respondents began cycling during the pandemic, with most not owning a car or motorcycle, and would take public transport when not using their bicycles. Most respondents also cycled for leisure at least once or twice a week. Over 90 percent of respondents stated that their workplaces had bicycle parking, while only 29 percent of respondents had workplaces with locker rooms and only 15 percent of respondents had workplaces with showers.[40]

Since 2020, the Social Weather Stations has conducted 13 surveys nationwide assessing the ownership and use of bicycles as a mode of transportation and as a recreational activity.[41]

The latest survey, conducted from March 26 to 29, 2023, finds that 36 percent of households (an estimated 10 million households) in the Philippines use bicycles for any activity, up from 29 percent in April 2022. The latest survey also finds that 24 percent of households (an estimated 6.6 million households) own bicycles, up from 23 percent in April 2022. Throughout the 13 surveys, it was also reported that more households own bicycles than four-wheeled motor vehicles, such as cars, vans, electric cars, jeepneys, or electric jeepneys and three-wheeled motor vehicles such as motorized and electric tricycles. However, it states that are more households nationwide that own two-wheeled motor vehicles such as motorcycles and electric bicycles.[41]

A cycle rickshaw taxi carries passengers along Labuca Street in Cansojong, Talisay, Cebu.

A bicycle store in Pulilan, Bulacan

The March 2023 survey also reveals that among the 36 percent of households that use bicycles, 24 percent percent of households use them for essential activities, up from 21 percent in April 2022 and 19 percent in May 2021. On the other hand, 27 percent of households that use bicycles use them for recreational activities, up from 18 percent in April 2022 and 19 percent in May 2021.[41]

Additionally, the March 2023 survey also shows that of the 36 percent of cycling households, 23 percent use their own bicycles while 13 percent use borrowed bicycles. This is up from 23 percent using their own bicycles and 6 percent using borrowed bicycles as reported in the April 2022 survey.[41]

Cyclists on their exclusive lane along Commonwealth Avenue, Quezon City on September 6, 2022

Concerns were also raised on the placement of bicycle lanes, with some being overlaid onto existing road lanes rather than being integrated as part of a reconfiguration of the road. This raised concerns about confusion among road users and an increased risk of accidents involving both cyclists and motorists.[26][60]

In December 2022, motoring journalist James Deakin wrote a column in the Manila Bulletin where he labeled the national government's bicycle lane network as a "failed experiment" due to the "half lane" design and proliferation of motorcycles in the bicycle lanes, which he attributes the latter as one of the reluctances of Filipinos to consider cycling as a mode of transport. Deakin suggested that the bicycle lane should be "salvaged" into a motorcycle lane or removed completely to give "back to cars",[60] which drew criticism online.[26] Voice-over artist and content creator Inka Magnaye, in response to Deakin's column, showed annoyance at the "bandaid solution" design of the bicycle lanes, urging the need to improve them to be safer for cyclists and motorists alike. However, her remarks were interpreted as a criticism against bicycle lanes, sparking multiple discussions online on road safety for drivers and cyclists alike[62][26]

Cyclists carry their bikes while using the Philcoa footbridge along Commonwealth Avenue in Quezon City on October 20, 2020.

Due to the growing popularity of cycling brought upon by the COVID-19 pandemic, the number of bicycle-related road accidents have also increased.[63]

In a column in The Manila Times in June 2020, then-Manila mayor Isko Moreno expressed his reluctance in complying with the national government's directive to put up bicycle lanes in Manila, stating that the city streets are too dangerous to normalize cycling on due to the presence of unruly motorists and "gargantuan" trucks.[64] Cycling advocacy group Cycling Matters responded to Moreno's column, criticizing his arguments for complaining about the unsafe conditions for cyclists while not taking the "long overdue responsibility" to make Manila's roads safer for them.[65]

The Metropolitan Manila Development Authority (MMDA) reported a total of 1,759 accidents in 2019, which had increased to 2,503 accidents in 2020, and slightly decreased to 2,397 accidents in 2021 along major roads within its jurisdiction. Most of these accidents were reported to be non-fatal and a third of these were reported as damage to property.[66] The MMDA has noted, however, that its data as of 2020 has since included road accidents involving pedicabs and electric bicycles.[63] Many of these accidents have been attributed to a lack of protected bicycle lanes and traffic calming measures to allow bicycles to safely navigate through heavily congested roads.[63]

A Quezon City bike patroller watches over a bike lane along Roosevelt Avenue, Quezon City on April 29, 2021.

Since the establishment of the nationwide bicycle lane network, motorists have complained that cyclists and other non-motorized transport users often leave or do not use the bicycle lanes, causing these users to go on open roads.[67] However, many cyclists have also aired their grievances on social media on obstacles within the bicycle lanes, ranging from potholes, puddles, metal sheets covering roadworks, dangerous drain covers, utility poles, parked vehicles, and motor vehicles entering unprotected segments of the bicycle lanes to turn or overtake. As a result, cyclists often go in and out of the bicycle lanes around these obstacles or avoid using the bicycle lanes completely.[67] Cycling advocates have also argued that bicycle lanes are not meant to "cage" cyclists into bicycle lanes but to keep motor vehicle users out of them.[67][61]