Military of Champa

Champa Civil Wars were conflicts throughout the history of the Champa Kingdom. These civil wars were typically fought between rival factions or claimants to the throne, and were often sparked by political or economic grievances, and were fought between rival factions or claimants to the throne. Despite the conflicts, the Champa kingdom was able to survive for many centuries, and its legacy continues to be felt today.[2][3][4]

The first Champa Civil War took place in the early 6th century, when a prince named Fan Hsiung rebelled against his father, the king of Champa. The rebellion was successful, and Fan Hsiung established himself as the new king of Champa.[3][4]

In the 8th century, another civil war broke out between two Champa princes who were vying for the throne. The conflict lasted for several years and resulted in the weakening of the Champa kingdom.[3][4]

In the 10th century, a Champa king named Jaya Simhavarman III was overthrown by a rival claimant to the throne, who established himself as the new king of Champa. The conflict resulted in the splitting of the Champa kingdom into two separate states, with one based in the north and the other based in the south.[3][4]

In the 14th century, another civil war broke out between rival factions in the Champa court. The conflict was sparked by political grievances and resulted in the weakening of the Champa kingdom.[5][4]

The Sino-Cham Wars were a series of conflicts that took place between the Chinese and Champa kingdoms during the Tang dynasty in the 7th and 8th centuries. The wars were fought over control of the lucrative trade routes that passed through the region, particularly the maritime trade routes that linked China with Southeast Asia and the Indian Ocean.[6]

The first Sino-Cham War began in 602 AD, when the Chinese emperor launched a naval expedition to the Champa kingdom in retaliation for Champa's support of a rebellion in Chinese-held Vietnam. The Chinese were able to capture several Champa cities and establish garrisons in the region, but were eventually forced to withdraw due to logistical difficulties.[7][6]

The second Sino-Cham War began in 753 AD, when the Chinese launched another naval expedition to the Champa kingdom in response to Champa's attacks on Chinese merchant ships. The Chinese were able to capture several Champa cities and establish garrisons in the region, but were again forced to withdraw due to logistical difficulties and the outbreak of disease among their troops.[6][8][9]

The Sino-Cham Wars had a significant impact on both kingdoms. The Chinese were able to establish a presence in the region and secure their control over the trade routes, while the Champa kingdom was weakened by the conflicts and faced increasing pressure from neighboring kingdoms. However, the wars also led to the exchange of cultural and technological ideas between the two kingdoms, particularly in the areas of shipbuilding and naval warfare.[6][8][9]

Cham soldier in helmet fighting Khmer soldier, Bas-relief at Bayon temple in Cambodia

The Khmer-Cham Wars were a series of conflicts that took place between the Khmer Empire and the Champa Kingdom during the 9th to 15th centuries. The wars were fought over control of the Mekong Delta region, which was a strategic area for trade and agriculture.[10][11][12][13][14]

The conflicts began in the 9th century when the Khmer Empire expanded its territory and began to encroach on Champa's borders. The Champa kingdom responded by launching raids on Khmer territory, and the two kingdoms engaged in a series of battles and skirmishes over the next several centuries.[10][11][12][13][14]

In the 12th century, the Khmer Empire launched a major invasion of Champa, which resulted in the capture of several Champa cities and the establishment of Khmer control over the Mekong Delta region. However, the Champa kingdom was able to regain its independence and launch counter-attacks against the Khmer Empire in the following centuries.[15][16][17][18][10][11][12][13][14]

The Khmer-Cham Wars had a significant impact on both kingdoms. The Khmer Empire was able to expand its territory and gain control over the Mekong Delta region, which helped to fuel its economic and cultural growth. However, the wars also weakened the Khmer Empire and left it vulnerable to outside invasions, particularly from the Thai kingdoms.[10][11][12][13][14]

The Champa kingdom was also weakened by the conflicts and faced increasing pressure from neighboring kingdoms. The wars contributed to the decline of the Champa kingdom and its eventual conquest by the Vietnamese in the late 15th century.[10][11][12][13][14]

The Cham-Vietnamese wars were a series of conflicts that took place between the Champa Kingdom and various Vietnamese kingdoms over several centuries. The wars were fought over control of the central and southern regions of Vietnam, which were strategic areas for trade and agriculture.[19]

The conflicts began in the 10th century when the Vietnamese began to expand their territory and encroach on Champa's borders. The Champa kingdom responded by launching raids on Vietnamese territory, and the two kingdoms engaged in a series of battles and skirmishes over the next several centuries.[19]

In the 15th century, the Vietnamese were able to gain the upper hand in the conflicts and launched a major invasion of Champa. The Vietnamese were able to capture several Champa cities and establish their control over the region. The Champa kingdom was weakened by the conflicts and faced increasing pressure from neighboring kingdoms.[19]

The Cham-Vietnamese wars had a significant impact on both kingdoms. The Vietnamese were able to expand their territory and gain control over the central and southern regions of Vietnam, which helped to fuel their economic and cultural growth. However, the wars also left the Vietnamese kingdom vulnerable to outside invasions, particularly from the Chinese.[19]

The Champa kingdom was weakened by the conflicts and faced increasing pressure from neighboring kingdoms. The wars contributed to the decline of the Champa kingdom and its eventual conquest by the Vietnamese in the late 15th century.[19] Although Champa fell, they were eventually vassalized by Vietnam and forced to move their capital to Panduranga while maintaining what was left of the armed forces.

During the Trinh-Nguyen War where the Le Dynasty was facing political instability between two powerful military families, Champa came under suzerainty by the Nguyen Lords in 1611. They revolted against the Nguyen dictatorship six times throughout but lost more territory to them.

During the Tây Sơn wars, the rebellion thrusted the Nguyen Lords out of power. However, Champa was again torn by civil war between those who supported the Tay Son Dynasty led by Po Tisuntiraidapuran and those who supported the Nguyen Lords led by Po Krei Brei and Po Ladhuanpuguh. Eventually Po Tisuntiraidapuran was captured and executed, allowing the Pro-Nguyen Cham co-rulers to have Champa side with them turning the tide of the war against the rebellion paving the way to the Nguyen Dynasty.

During the Nguyen Dynasty, Minh Mạng succeeded his father and enacted repressive acts against ethnic minorities, predominantly the Chams and the Montagnards. He repressed their freedom of religion banning Hinduism, Islam, and Christianity forcing them to assimilate to Vietnamese culture, and allowed Vietnamese settlers to expropriate their land. This incited armed uprisings against him and any Pro-Viet Cham official.

In August 1822, Ja Lidong from Malathit (southwest of Phan Thiết) led a Cham uprising against Minh Mang's harsh mandatory levies and were advancing toward Bình Thuận, posing a threat to densely populated areas of Bình Thuận where the (Vietnamese) Kinh were majority residents. Furious with news of the rebellion, Po Klan Thu requested Minh Mang for help, and Minh Mang immediately approved. Po Klan Thu was enthroned shortly after as ruler of Champa but a "commissioner of Champa" from the eyes of the Vietnamese, still he wasn't able to restrain discontent among the Chams.[20] After receiving the investiture, Po Klan Thu returned to Panduranga's capital Phan Rí, while Ja Lidong's forces had captured many regions and blown up a strategic fort in Thị Linh.[20]

In February 1823, the Cham royal court assembled an army, assisted by Kinh militia under the command of Thái Văn Thuận. From Long Hương, Phan Rí and Phú Hài, they began hunting down the rebels of Ja Lidong, engaged and defeated them. The army of Ja Lidong however did not disintegrate but retreated westward to the Mekong Delta, which was under the governance of the Viceroyalty of Saigon. The current viceroy of Saigon, Lê Văn Duyệt, sent envoy Nguyễn Văn Châu to meet Ja Lidong and made a compromise. After the deal has been facilitated, Ja Lidong agreed to surrender his arms and army peacefully to Lê Văn Duyệt.[21]

Nduai Kabait, a formal Cham official and military general incited a rebellion against the Nguyen Imperial Court. Starting from upland Dong Nai (Dong-Nai Thuong), he urged Chams as far away as in Khánh Hòa and Phú Yên to rise up against the Vietnamese. Minh Mang ordered local troops joining Po Klan Thu to put down the rebellion. The army of Khánh Hòa and Phú Yên attacked on Kỳ Tuân fort while Po Klan Thu was leading his army to Dong Nai Thuong. Due to rough mountainous terrains and densely forested roads, Po Klan Thu had to retreat.

In Khánh Hòa and Phú Yên, Minh Mang issued a total liquidation of the rebels. But in Panduranga, Po Klan Thu opened a conference with the leadership of the rebels. Both sides agreed to reach a peaceful reconciliation. But when Nduai Kabait's delegation arrived in Po Klan Thu's fort, one of the king's representative officials ordered troops to arrest the attaché, all of Nduai Kabait's troops and tortured them. Finally, they put two of Nduai Kabait's commanders on a pyre and burned them to death, then grind their bodies into small pieces of human meat and distributed them to those prisoners. Panicked of this brutal retribution, all the prisoners immediately laid their arms and surrendered to that official, putting an end to Nduai Kabait's rebellion. After having the revolt suppressed, Minh Mang began to orchestrate his Vietnamization-the cultural assimilation, on the Chams.

Katip Sumat, a Muslim Cleric waged a jihad against Vietnam for their repressive policies, but they were repressed by not only by 1,000 well equipped armed forces but also religious ideological infighting between him and Ja Thak Wa.

Ja Thak Wa (Thầy Điền or Điền Sư), launched another revolt against Vietnamese in 1834. Ja Thak Wa chose Chek Bicham (Phố Châm Sơn) as his base area; he crowned Po War Palei (La Bôn Vương), a son-in-law of the last deputy ruler Po Dhar Kaok (Nguyễn Văn Nguyên), as the new Champa king.[22] The rebels attacked Ninh Thuận, Bình Thuận, Khánh Hòa and Phú Yên.[23] They were supported by Montagnard in Central Highlands.[22]

The rebellion was put down in July 1835, though both Ja Thak Wa and Po War Palei were killed in Phan Rang earlier in May.[23] In the same year, two Cham leaders, Po Phaok The (Nguyễn Văn Thừa) and Po Dhar Kaok (Nguyễn Văn Nguyên) were executed by the Emperor.[24]

A class of warrior-nobles responsible for protecting the king and his family, as well as defending the kingdom's borders. These Kshatriyas were known for their military prowess and were considered to be a respected and noble class within the Champa society. They were often rewarded with land and titles for their service to the king and were expected to maintain a high level of martial skill and loyalty to the royal family. The tradition of naming warrior-nobles after the Kshatriyas is likely related to the belief in the protective power of these door guardians in Hindu and Buddhist traditions. By naming their warriors after the Kshatriyas, the Champa kingdom was invoking the power of these protective figures to defend their kingdom and ensure the safety of their rulers. Overall, the Kshatriyas played an important role in the religious and cultural traditions of the Champa kingdom, as well as in their military and political institutions.[25][27]

The haluwbilau or haluw bilang were military officers of both the army and navy. The term "haluwbilau" is derived from the Cham language and means "one who leads the army". The "haluwbilau" were highly respected members of Cham society and were known for their bravery, skill, and leadership on the battlefield. The "haluwbilau" were also known for their distinctive clothing and equipment, which set them apart from other warriors in the Cham army. They wore brightly colored dresses made from silk or other delicate fabrics, often adorned with jewelry and other decorative items. The "haluwbilau" were selected from among the most talented and capable warriors of the Cham people and were trained in a variety of martial arts and military tactics. They were responsible for leading Cham armies into battle and defending their communities against outside threats. In addition to their military duties, the "haluwbilau" also played an essential role in the political and social life of the Cham people. They were often called upon to mediate disputes and guide the community in crisis. The "haluwbilau" was an essential part of Cham society and played a crucial role in defending their people and culture. While their role as military officers has primarily disappeared in modern times, the legacy of the "haluwbilau" lives on as a symbol of the courage and bravery of the Cham people.[25][26][27][28]

A group of elite warriors who served as the personal bodyguards of the Champa king and other high-ranking officials in the kingdom. The Bhadras were known for their skill in hand-to-hand combat and were drawn from the noble class. The Bhadras were trained in a variety of martial arts, including wrestling, boxing, and swordsmanship. They were also skilled in the use of various weapons, including swords, spears, and shields. The Bhadras were known for their loyalty to the king and were willing to sacrifice themselves to protect him from harm. The Bhadras were a highly respected and prestigious unit within the Champa military, and their members were often granted special privileges and honors. The Bhadras were also responsible for maintaining order and security within the royal court, and were often called upon to quell uprisings and rebellions.[25][27]

The Dvarapalas were a group of skilled archers who served as the personal bodyguards of the Champa king and other high-ranking officials in the kingdom. The Dvarapalas were typically drawn from the common people and were trained in the use of bows and arrows, as well as other ranged weapons. The Dvarapalas were known for their accuracy and speed with the bow, and were often used to provide cover fire for the king and his retinue during battles and other military operations. They were also skilled in the use of other ranged weapons, such as slings and throwing knives. The Dvarapalas were a highly respected unit within the Champa military, and their members were often granted special privileges and honors. They were also responsible for maintaining order and security within the royal court, and were often called upon to quell uprisings and rebellions.[26][27]

A group of skilled horsemen who served as the personal bodyguards of the Champa king and other high-ranking officials in the kingdom, rather than a cavalry force. The Ashvapatis were responsible for providing the king with a fast and mobile cavalry force that could be used for reconnaissance, raids, and other military operations. They were also responsible for maintaining order and security within the royal court, and were often called upon to quell uprisings and rebellions. The Ashvapatis were typically drawn from the common people and underwent extensive training in horse riding and cavalry tactics. They were also skilled in the use of various weapons, including swords, lances, and bows and arrows. The Ashvapatis were a highly respected unit within the Champa military, and their members were often granted special privileges and honors. They were considered to be among the most elite and prestigious units in the Champa Kingdom's military forces.[25][27]

The "Dai-Viet", or "Great Soldiers" were highly trained soldiers who were responsible for defending the kingdom's borders and maintaining order within the kingdom. They were chosen from among the best and most capable warriors in the Champa army. They were equipped with chainmail armor and carried weapons such as spears, swords, and bows. They were known for their bravery, skill, and discipline in battle. In addition to their military duties, the Dai-Viet also played an important role in the political and social life of the Champa kingdom. They were often called upon to mediate disputes and to provide guidance to the community in times of crisis. The Dai-Viet were also responsible for maintaining law and order within the kingdom. They were tasked with enforcing the king's edicts and punishing those who broke the law. They were respected members of Champa society and played a crucial role in maintaining the stability and security of the kingdom. Overall, the role of the Dai-Viet in Champa's military was to defend the kingdom's borders and maintain law and order within the kingdom. They were highly skilled warriors who played an essential role in the political and social life of the Champa kingdom.[25][31][27]

The Rukaiyah were a group of archers who were part of the Champa Army. The Rukaiyah were known for their expertise in archery, particularly their accuracy and speed when firing arrows. In battle, the Rukaiyah were often deployed to provide long-range support to Champa's ground troops. They would position themselves behind the front lines and fire arrows at enemy forces, weakening their ranks and causing chaos in their formations. The Rukaiyah were also skilled at using their bows to shoot down enemy catapults and other siege weapons. To become a Rukaiyah, soldiers had to undergo rigorous training in archery and learn how to shoot arrows accurately over long distances. They also had to be physically fit and agile, as they needed to move quickly to avoid enemy fire and change their positions frequently to maintain their advantage.[25][27]

The Raioi were a group of highly skilled swordsmen who were part of the Champa Army. The Raioi were known for their agility, precision, and deadly swordsmanship in close-quarters combat. In battle, the Raioi were often deployed to take on enemy infantry in hand-to-hand combat. They were highly effective at using their speed and agility to evade enemy attacks and strike at vulnerable points in their opponents' defenses. The Raioi were also skilled at using their swords to deflect enemy blows and disarm their adversaries. To become a Raioi, soldiers had to undergo rigorous training in swordsmanship and close-quarters combat. They had to be physically fit and agile, with lightning-fast reflexes and excellent hand-eye coordination. The training was also designed to instill a strong sense of discipline and honor in the soldiers, as the Raioi were considered to be among the most elite warriors in the Champa Army.[25][27]

The Khuih Nai were a group of warriors who were part of the Champa Army. The Khuih Nai were known for their expertise in guerrilla warfare, which involved using small, mobile units to launch surprise attacks on enemy forces. In battle, the Khuih Nai would operate in small groups and move quickly and quietly through the jungle or other terrain to reach their targets. They were highly skilled at ambushing enemy forces, using hit-and-run tactics to inflict damage on their opponents before disappearing back into the jungle. To become a Khuih Nai, soldiers had to undergo specialized training in guerrilla warfare. They had to be physically fit and agile, with excellent survival skills and knowledge of the terrain. The training also emphasized the importance of stealth, as the Khuih Nai had to be able to move silently and avoid detection by enemy forces.[25][27]

Dara were a group of elite cavalrymen who were part of the Champa Army. The Dara were known for their skills in horseback riding and their expertise in using spears in battle. In battle, the Dara were often used to charge enemy lines and break through enemy formations. They were highly effective at using their spears to impale enemy soldiers and disrupt their ranks. The Dara were also skilled at using their horses to trample enemy troops and create chaos in the enemy's lines. To become a Dara, soldiers had to undergo specialized training in horsemanship and spear combat. They had to be physically fit and agile, with excellent hand-eye coordination and a strong sense of balance. The training also emphasized the importance of discipline and teamwork, as the Dara had to be able to coordinate their movements and work together to achieve their objectives.[25][27]

Huyen Quan were a group of elite soldiers who were part of the Champa Army. The Huyen Quan were known for their skills in hand-to-hand combat, particularly their ability to engage enemy forces in close-quarters combat. In battle, the Huyen Quan were often used to charge enemy lines and break through enemy formations. They were highly effective at using their weapons, such as swords and spears, to impale enemy soldiers and disrupt their ranks. The Huyen Quan were also skilled at using their agility and speed to evade enemy attacks and strike at vulnerable points in their opponents' defenses. To become a Huyen Quan, soldiers had to undergo specialized training in hand-to-hand combat and close-quarters combat. They had to be physically fit and agile, with excellent reflexes and hand-eye coordination. The training also emphasized the importance of discipline and mental toughness, as the Huyen Quan had to be able to remain focused and composed in the heat of battle.[25][26][27]

Binh Ngo were a group of highly skilled archers who were part of the Champa Army. The Binh Ngo were known for their accuracy and speed when firing arrows. In battle, the Binh Ngo were often deployed to provide long-range support to Champa's ground troops. They would position themselves behind the front lines and fire arrows at enemy forces, weakening their ranks and causing chaos in their formations. The Binh Ngo were also skilled at using their bows to shoot down enemy catapults and other siege weapons. To become a Binh Ngo, soldiers had to undergo specialized training in archery and learn how to shoot arrows accurately over long distances. They also had to be physically fit and agile, as they needed to move quickly to avoid enemy fire and change their positions frequently to maintain their advantage.[25][27]

Huyen Thuat were a group of warriors who were part of the Champa Army. The Huyen Thuat were known for their skills in stealth and sabotage, and were trained to infiltrate enemy lines and disrupt their operations from within. In battle, the Huyen Thuat would operate in small groups and move quietly through the jungle or other terrain to reach their targets. They were highly skilled at setting traps, sabotaging enemy equipment, and gathering intelligence on enemy movements. The Huyen Thuat were also effective at using their stealth and surprise attacks to take down enemy soldiers and disrupt their operations. To become a Huyen Thuat, soldiers had to undergo specialized training in stealth tactics and guerrilla warfare. They had to be physically fit and agile, with excellent survival skills and knowledge of the terrain. The training also emphasized the importance of discipline and patience, as the Huyen Thuat had to be able to wait for the right moment to strike and avoid detection by enemy forces.[25][27]

The provincial armies were an important component of the kingdom's military strategy. The Champa Kingdom was divided into several provinces, each of which was governed by a local ruler who answered to the king. These local rulers were responsible for maintaining order and security in their provinces, which included organizing and maintaining a local army. The provincial armies were composed of local militias, which were composed of able-bodied men from the local community and were responsible for defending their local communities and were led by local leaders who were appointed by the governor of the province. The provincial armies were responsible for maintaining order and security in their respective provinces, as well as defending against external threats. They were organized and trained in a similar fashion to the central Champa military, with a focus on cavalry and elephant warfare, as well as the use of siege weapons and naval tactics. The provincial armies coordinated by the central Champa military, which was responsible for overseeing the military operations of the kingdom as a whole. The central military provided training, supplies, and strategic guidance to the provincial armies, and would have coordinated their efforts in times of war or emergency. The provincial armies would have been responsible for maintaining order and security in their respective provinces, as well as defending against external threats. They would have played an important role in protecting the kingdom's borders and maintaining the kingdom's independence.[1][28]

The mangpung were a specialized group of sailors and warriors in the Champa Kingdom. They were known for their bravery and expertise in navigating the treacherous waters of the South China Sea. The word "mangpung" literally means "sea warriors" in the Cham language. The mangpung were an important part of Champa's navy and were responsible for guarding the kingdom's coastal regions and trade routes. They were skilled in both defensive and offensive tactics and were able to launch surprise attacks on enemy ships with great success. They were also trained in hand-to-hand combat and were skilled in the use of a variety of weapons, including swords, spears, and bows. In addition to their military duties, the mangpung were also involved in trade and commerce. They were often hired by merchants to protect their ships and cargo from pirates and other dangers. This made them an important part of the region's economy and helped to establish Champa as a major maritime power in Southeast Asia. Despite their importance, little is known about the mangpung today. Most of their sources comes from ancient Cham texts and legends, as well as from the accounts of European traders and explorers who visited the region in the 16th and 17th centuries. Nevertheless, their legacy lives on, and they remain an important part of the history and culture of Southeast Asia.[25][33]

The Binh Doi were a highly specialized group of soldiers who were trained to fight both on land and sea, and were an important part of the Champa's military strategy. They were highly skilled in a variety of combat techniques and tactics, including hand-to-hand combat, weapons use, and naval warfare. The Binh Doi were often deployed to provide additional firepower during naval battles, using their skills in weapons and tactics to help Champa's naval forces gain a strategic advantage. They were also highly effective in land-based combat, using their skills in hand-to-hand combat and other forms of warfare to engage enemy forces and defend Champa's territory. On land, the Binh Doi were highly effective in a variety of combat situations. They were skilled at using weapons such as swords, spears, and bows, and were able to engage enemy forces in close-quarters combat. They were also highly mobile and agile, able to move quickly and effectively across different types of terrain. In naval combat, the Binh Doi were often used to provide additional support to Champa's naval forces. They were skilled at using weapons such as bows, spears, and swords, and were able to engage enemy forces at sea with great effectiveness. They were also highly skilled sailors, able to navigate and operate Champa's naval vessels with great skill and precision. To become a Binh Doi, soldiers had to undergo specialized training in both land and naval combat. They had to be physically fit and strong, with excellent hand-eye coordination and a strong sense of balance. The training also emphasized the importance of discipline and mental toughness, as the Binh Doi had to be able to remain focused and composed in the heat of battle.[25][33][26][27]

The Sama were a group of skilled fishermen and sailors who were known for their expertise in navigating the waters around the Champa Kingdom. The Sama were typically drawn from the common people and underwent extensive training in fishing, sailing, and navigation. The Sama were instrumental in the success of many naval operations in the Champa Kingdom. They were often used as scouts and navigators for the Champa Navy, and were able to provide valuable information about the currents, tides, and weather patterns in the region. This information was critical for the success of naval operations, as it allowed Champa's ships to navigate safely and avoid hazards. The Sama were also skilled in the use of various fishing techniques and were able to catch a wide variety of fish and seafood. This made them a valuable resource for the Champa Kingdom, as they were able to provide fresh food for the navy and other military forces.[25][33]

Rayi were a group of sailors responsible for crewing Champa's naval vessels and were highly skilled in navigation and seamanship. In addition to their duties as sailors, the Rayi were also trained in basic combat skills and could be called upon to fight in naval battles. They were often armed with swords, bows, and other weapons, and were skilled at using them in a maritime environment. To become a Rayi, sailors had to undergo specialized training in sailing and navigation. They had to be physically fit and agile, with excellent balance and coordination. The training also emphasized the importance of teamwork and communication, as the Rayi had to work together to crew the ship and carry out their duties effectively.[25][33]

Nhan Dan were a group of sailors who were responsible for the maintenance and repair of Champa's naval vessels and were highly skilled in carpentry, metalworking, and other trades that were necessary for keeping the fleet in good condition. In addition to their duties as shipwrights and repairmen, the Nhan Dan could also be called upon to fight in naval battles. They were often armed with swords, bows, and other weapons, and were skilled at using them in a maritime environment. To become a Nhan Dan, sailors had to undergo specialized training in shipbuilding and repair. They had to be physically fit and agile, with excellent hand-eye coordination and a strong sense of spatial awareness. The training also emphasized the importance of attention to detail and quality craftsmanship, as the Nhan Dan had to ensure that Champa's naval vessels were in top condition at all times.[25][33]

Tho Nhi Ky were a group of divers responsible for performing underwater tasks such as repairing ships, salvaging lost cargo, and performing other tasks that required them to work in the water. In addition to their duties as divers, the Tho Nhi Ky could also be called upon to fight in naval battles. They were often armed with weapons such as tridents and harpoons, and were skilled at using them in a maritime environment. To become a Tho Nhi Ky, sailors had to undergo specialized training in diving and underwater work. They had to be physically fit and agile, with excellent swimming skills and the ability to hold their breath for extended periods of time. The training also emphasized the importance of safety and caution, as the Tho Nhi Ky had to be able to work effectively in sometimes hazardous underwater environments.[25][33]

The Cham pirates were active in the South China Sea from the late 17th century to the early 19th century. They were based in the coastal areas of Vietnam and Cambodia, feared by merchant ships and navy vessels alike, and were notorious for their brutal tactics and cruelty towards their victims as well as their expertise in seafaring. The Cham pirates were said to have used fast and maneuverable vessels and were known for their ability to outrun and outmaneuver larger ships. They can navigate in shallow waters and launch surprise attacks on enemy ships. The Cham pirates were notorious for their brutality and were said to have killed or enslaved their captives. They were also known for using torture and were said to have used methods such as bamboo shoots under the fingernails or tying their victims to a mast, leaving them to thirst.[28][29]

To combat these pirates, Champa Kingdom was to station naval patrols along the coast to deter pirate attacks. These patrols were often made up of warships that were armed with cannons and other weapons. The patrols would travel along the coast and intercept any pirate vessels that they encountered, either by engaging them in battle or by boarding and capturing them. Another method used by the Champa Kingdom was to construct defensive fortifications along the coast. These fortifications, which included watchtowers, walls, and gates, were designed to prevent pirates from landing on the coast and to provide a safe haven for Champa's merchant ships. The fortifications were often manned by soldiers who were trained in naval warfare and were equipped with weapons and ammunition. In addition to these defensive measures, the Champa Kingdom also sought to negotiate with Cham pirates and other pirate groups in order to establish a peaceful coexistence. These negotiations often involved the exchange of goods and tribute, as well as the establishment of trade agreements and other diplomatic initiatives.[28][29][34]

Regional naval forces, including the Dutch, British, and Chinese navies, eventually suppressed the Cham pirates. The British Royal Navy launched several campaigns against the Cham pirates in the late 18th century, and by the early 19th century, the Cham pirates had primarily disappeared as a significant threat.[28][29]

Depiction of a Cham–Khmer naval battle, stone relief at the Bayon.

They are composed of mostly small to medium-sized warships for coastal defense, piracy, and maritime trade and maintain a significant presence along the coasts of Southeast Asia. They built their ships with multiple decks and used advanced rigging techniques to make them faster and more maneuverable and were adapted from traditional Southeast Asian boat designs. Large warships, known as "towers on the water", were up to 60 meters long and had various decks. These ships had different rows of oars and a large crew of soldiers and navigators. The Chams also had smaller ships called "sea-going rafts" propelled by sails and oars. Other large vessels were named "jongs", large sailing ships with multiple masts and a high prow and stern for long-distance trade and could carry large amounts of cargo and passengers, as well as weapons and troops for military expeditions. Smaller, faster ships were called "sampans", which were used for scouting and patrolling. Another type of small warship was the " katamaran", a smaller vessel with two hulls well-suited for navigating shallow waters and river estuaries. They were often used for piracy and coastal raids. The Chams also used "fire ships", vessels loaded with flammable materials set alight and used to attack enemy ships. They used dragon boats on rivers and lakes to carry many marines to engage the Khmer and Viet vessels in ramming and close-quarters combat. In addition to these warships, the Champa navy relied on smaller boats and canoes for surveillance, fishing, and transporting goods and troops along rivers and coastal areas.[1][26][27][28]

Trinh Nu were a group of female warriors who were part of the Champa Army. The Trinh Nu were known for their skills in martial arts and hand-to-hand combat, and were often used to guard important locations and protect Champa's leaders. In battle, the Trinh Nu were highly effective at using their martial arts skills to take down enemy soldiers. They were skilled in hand-to-hand combat and were able to use their agility and speed to evade enemy attacks and strike at vulnerable points in their opponents' defenses. To become a Trinh Nu, women had to undergo specialized training in martial arts and self-defense. They had to be physically fit and agile, with excellent hand-eye coordination and a strong sense of balance. The training also emphasized the importance of discipline and mental toughness, as the Trinh Nu had to be able to remain focused and composed in the heat of battle.[1][25][26][27]

12th-century Champa marines wore various armor.

The Cham military wore various armor such as rattan armor, lacquered leather, buff coats, padded jackets, and metal armor such as scale armour, lamellar, chainmail, and steel cuirass.[1] The exact type of armor may vary depending on the period and specific circumstances. Still, it generally consisted of helmets, chest plates, arm guards, and leg guards. The helmets worn by Cham soldiers were typically made of metal and covered the head and neck with a faceguard or visor to protect the face. The chest plates were also metal and covered the torso with additional leaves or chains to protect the shoulders and back. The arm and leg guards were typically made of flexible lacquered leather, allowing greater mobility. They were sometimes reinforced with metal or other materials to provide additional protection. In addition to armor, Cham soldiers also carried shields, typically made of wood and covered with animal hide or leather. These shields were often decorated with intricate designs or symbols, which may have had religious or cultural significance. Overall, the armor Cham soldiers wore was designed to protect them from enemy weapons and projectiles while allowing for mobility and flexibility on the battlefield.[1][35][30][34]

Crossbow, Hre, Vietnam Museum of Ethnology, Hanoi, Vietnam

Ancient Champa Sword

The Cham soldiers used various weapons, including swords, spears, bows, arrows, and crossbows. Swords were a standard weapon used by Cham soldiers, and they were typically made of iron or steel and had curved blades. The length of the sword varied depending on the specific type. Spears were also a popular weapon among Cham soldiers, typically made of wood with a metal tip. They could be used for thrusting or throwing, depending on the situation. Bows and arrows were another essential part of the Cham soldier's arsenal. The Chams were known for using "repeating crossbows" on their boats. These crossbows could fire multiple arrows at a time, making them a formidable weapon against enemy ships. They used trebuchets to lay siege to cities and retrofitted them on their ships. These weapons were used for ranged attacks and could be particularly effective in open terrain. The bows were typically wood or bamboo, and the arrows had metal or bone tips.[1][35]

Sculpture of Cham mounted archers on chariots. c. 11th–13th century.

On sculptures and reliefs from the 11th–13th centuries there were Cham mounted archers on chariots in. However, it is unclear how widely chariots were used in Champa's military or how long they remained in use. Some scholars suggest that the use of chariots may have been influenced by Indian military traditions, including war elephants and chariots. However, there is little concrete evidence to support this theory. It is also possible that the use of chariots in Champa's military was limited to specific periods or regions and may not have been a widespread practice. The lack of clear references to chariots in historical texts and inscriptions suggests that they were not a defining feature of Champa's military.[35][30][34]

Two Vietnamese arquebuses with their dust cover. From Cornelis Tromp's weapon rack, dated 1650–1679 AD. Chams acquired these firearms through various means.

After the gunpowder age, Chinese firearms—including rockets and handguns—were imported and employed by most Southeast Asian rulers in Dai Viet, Lan Na, and Luchuan. In 1390, the powerful Cham ruler Po Binasuor died in a naval battle. The Vietnamese records (written in chữ Hán) attribute his death to the weapon called the Huochong, long understood as referring to cannon, but more probably a handgun. These new weapons technology helped shift the balance of power between the two kingdoms.[36] During the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries, the Chams obtained some gunpowder weapons through trade or other means from China, their neighboring countries, and European Traders such as their bombard and early cannons which they retrofitted on their junks to suppress piracy.[1] They even used matchlocks and hand cannons by some armies and likely mounted on the warships and used by the crew to repel attackers or engage in naval battles.[37] Most notably, they developed naval mines made from earthenware jars and placed in near harbors or narrow straits to deter invading fleets.[38] However, Champa and Ayutthaya failed to adopt this technology and suffered the consequences.[36]

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