Niger Delta mangroves

World map of mangrove distribution

Mangrove forests are found in 118 countries and territories worldwide,[1] 75% of mangrove vegetation zones are located in intertidal tropic and sub-tropic habitats situated between 25° N and 25° S . Typically surrounding salient river deltas, mangrove regions support a variety of halophytes. These robust shrubs and trees, which have adapted to changing coastal conditions (such as inundation, sun exposure, anaerobic soil, and salinity concentration), play a substantive role in cultivating the biodiversity and wellbeing of the surrounding landscape.[2]

Mangroves are coastal wetland forests located in the intertidal zones of tropical and subtropical estuaries, saline backwaters, deltas, creeks, and lagoons. The mangrove ecosystem represents specific areas where mangrove plants flourish. These halophytic plants, including trees, shrubs, palms, and ferns, grow in the intertidal zones of brackish waters or estuarine wetlands in tropical and subtropical regions. This unique environment within mangroves influences the morphology, anatomy, and behavior of a community of organisms, showcasing local adaptations. The mangrove forests play a crucial role in coastal stabilization, minimizing the impact of wave action and wind energy on the shoreline, and acting as excellent inland structure defenders. They also act as carbon sinks, sequestering a significant amount of carbon annually. Despite covering a small percentage of the Earth's surface, mangroves account for a substantial portion of terrestrial carbon input into the ocean. Additionally, mangroves are highly productive ecosystems, supporting coastal populations' livelihoods directly and indirectly and providing habitats for various wildlife populations, including wading birds and seabirds. These forests also serve as essential sources of food, medicine, fuel, and shelter for many people, particularly those in coastal regions.[3][4]

Mangroves have a crucial ecological function in stabilizing coastal areas by mitigating the effects of wave action and wind energy on the shoreline, effectively acting as natural defenses for inland structures. The mangrove plants and the sediments surrounding them serve as carbon sinks, capturing approximately 22.8 million metric tons of carbon each year. In fact, they are superior in carbon sequestration compared to other blue carbon ecosystems, making them a significant nature-based response to climate change. Despite occupying a small fraction of the Earth's continental surface (approximately 0.1%), mangrove forests contribute 11% of all terrestrial carbon input into the ocean.

Mangroves stand out as highly productive ecosystems globally, offering essential support to the livelihoods of coastal communities both directly and indirectly. They provide habitats and sustenance to diverse wildlife populations, such as wading birds and seabirds. Additionally, mangroves play a crucial role as a significant resource for food, medicine, fuel, and housing for numerous individuals in Nigeria, especially those residing in coastal areas.[5][6]

The Niger Delta mangrove is the third largest in the world and the largest in Africa. Since the 1960s oil and gas exploration has become an important economic activity, resulting in significant alteration of the landscape via pollution, urbanization and invasion.

African mangroves have faced significant challenges in recent times, experiencing substantial losses. The decline, devastation, and deterioration of mangrove forests can be linked to several factors such as urbanization, quarrying, salt and sand extraction, pollution from industries and agro-industrial chemicals, as well as petroleum and gas exploitation. Additionally, the absence of adequate legislation and deforestation for fish smoking contribute to this issue. The mangrove forest zone in Nigeria not only enhances the socio-economic prosperity of rural coastal communities but also holds promise in shielding them from severe weather occurrences intensified by climate change. The anticipated rise in sea levels is expected to heighten flooding in coastal areas at lower altitudes, subsequently amplifying the physical and socio-economic susceptibilities of coastal urban centers. Nigeria has been acknowledged as one of the most susceptible African nations to climate change, and its impacts are currently manifesting in various regions of the country.[7]

In Nigeria, there are more than 2,000 industrial facilities, with approximately 80% of them concentrated in the coastal areas, particularly in urban hubs like Lagos, Port Harcourt, and nearby regions. The industries in Nigeria's coastal zone encompass a range of sectors including oil and gas, petrochemicals, iron and steel, fertilizer plants, aluminum smelting plants, as well as diverse manufacturing industries such as textiles, food processing, plastics, pharmaceuticals, cement production, soap and detergent manufacturing, paint production, brewing, and wood pulp and paper production. Considering that a significant portion of Nigeria's industrial facilities are situated in coastal states, and a growing population resides and works in areas vulnerable to climate change, the significance of mangrove deforestation and degradation cannot be overlooked. Hence, this study delved into the origins of mangrove deforestation and degradation within Nigeria's Niger Delta Region, analyzing the repercussions within a swiftly evolving climate context.[8]

Rhizophora racemosa

Biologically, six mangrove species make up these forests, including three species in the family Rhizophoraceae (Rhizophora racemosa (red mangrove; tall), Rhizophora harrisonii (red mangrove; dwarf), Rhizophora mangle (red mangrove; dwarf)), and species in the family Avicenniaceae (white mangrove) and Combretaceae.[9] Of these species, Rhizophora racemosa occupies the greatest density of the forest, accounting for approximately 90% of all mangrove biota.[9] Despite expansive geographic coverage, the Niger Delta mangrove forest has approximately 80% of its vegetation distributed in three states (Bayelsa, Delta, and River states).[10]

Although the forest is composed of six mangrove species, mangrove growth is primarily situated in brackish muddy creek banks.[9] Studies have indicated that Rhizophora racemosa (which is the tallest mangrove species) reaches its optimized growth potential when exposed to brackish water and soft mud, whereas R. racemosa's relatives, R. mangle and R. harrisonii, favor higher salinity and hard mud.[9] In its natural state, mangrove soil or “chikoko” (a mixture of acid sulphate, silty clay, clay loam and peat), has a pH of 4 and 6 for mangroves inhabiting low-tide and high-tide locations, respectively.[11] If salinity levels shift too much from these levels, mudflats become unsuitable for mangrove production, and the process of mangrove reforestation (from infertile mangrove land to productive mangrove mudflat) can take upwards of one century.[9]

Three mangrove tree families and a total of six species are found in the Niger Delta region: the red mangrove (Rhizophoraceae) including Rhizophora racemosa, R. harisonii, and R. mangle, the white mangrove (Combretaceae) known as Laguncularia racemosa, and the black mangrove (Avicenniaceae) represented by A. germinas. The global preference for planting red mangroves in human-assisted mangrove rehabilitation is due to the ease of planting red mangrove propagules either directly in the field or by raising seedlings in the nursery. However, it's important to note that each mangrove species has unique ecological significance beyond the general ecosystem goods and services provided by mangroves. Therefore, preserving the diverse species and genetic diversity of mangrove ecosystems is essential to conserve their unique ecological roles. For instance, the black mangrove (A. germinas) plays a fundamental role in the reproductive output, net survival, and ecological niche of the mangrove topminnow, Aplocheilichthys spilauchen, as it lays eggs on algal mats that grow on vertically protruding roots of the black mangrove.[12]

Planting mangroves is not the sole technique for restoration. Other approaches include assisted natural restoration, such as reestablishing tidal connectivity, and community-based ecological mangrove restoration, involving ecosystem design. Recent literature strongly advocates for ecologically oriented restoration that considers the causes of mangrove loss and emphasizes community-based ecological mangrove restoration (CBMER). This is a vital approach, especially given documented failures in mangrove planting. Moreover, planted mangroves often exhibit restricted species richness, abundance, and biodiversity even after extended periods.[13][14][15][16][17]

The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) categorizes biodiversity into three main types: ecosystem diversity, species diversity, and genetic diversity. However, countries like Nigeria, which are members of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), have often not adequately addressed genetics in their national biodiversity strategies and action plans. Genetic composition sets an organism apart from other species and significantly influences its ability to adapt to changing environments and climate change. It can even contribute to the establishment of new species in certain cases. Many conservationists emphasize that conserving genetic diversity forms the foundation of all conservation endeavors because it is essential for evolutionary adaptability, a crucial aspect for a species' long-term survival. In genetics, conservation biologists have two main goals to ensure species survival: firstly, to preserve high levels of heritable genetic variation and prevent detrimental alleles from becoming dominant, which can lead to decreased fitness and the accumulation of harmful mutations.[18][19]

The restoration of native mangrove ecosystems in the Niger Delta is crucial for safeguarding the forests' reproductive and productive fitness, evolutionary capacity, and adaptability to environmental changes. The objective of preventing harmful allele fixation is to mitigate reductions in survival and reproductive capability that small populations may experience due to limited genetic diversity. Therefore, a sustainable mangrove restoration approach involves incorporating species diversity to achieve broad and enduring results.

In the coastal areas of Nigeria, the mangrove forest is distributed as follows:

• Lagos, a coastal area in Nigeria, has a total expanse of 42.20 square kilometers. Within this area, specifically 3.13 square kilometers, are designated as forest reserves. This portion within the forest reserves represents 7.42% of the overall area of Lagos. Essentially, this signifies that a small but significant part of Lagos is designated as a forest reserve, contributing to the preservation and conservation of the region's natural habitats and ecosystems.[20]
• In Ogun, a region in Nigeria, the total area covered by mangroves is 12.18 square kilometers. Interestingly, unlike some other areas, there are no mangrove areas specifically designated within forest reserves in this region. This implies that all the mangroves in Ogun are in non-reserve areas, lacking the protective designation of a forest reserve. This situation could have implications for conservation efforts and suggests that mangrove preservation and management in Ogun may need to rely on other forms of protection and sustainability initiatives beyond designated reserves.
• In the region of Ondo, Nigeria, mangroves cover an area of 40.62 square kilometers. However, unlike some other regions where mangroves may be allocated within forest reserves for protection and management, Ondo does not have any mangrove areas designated within forest reserves. This means that all the mangroves in Ondo are situated outside of the officially designated forest reserve areas. This lack of mangroves within forest reserves can influence the conservation and management approach for these important ecosystems in Ondo. Preserving mangroves in this region would likely necessitate alternative strategies and efforts aimed at safeguarding them outside of formal reserve designations. It underscores the importance of comprehensive conservation measures and sustainable practices to ensure the continued health and vitality of the mangroves in Ondo.[20]
• In the Edo/Delta region of Nigeria, the mangrove forest area covers a substantial 3,470.32 square kilometers. Within this extensive area, 143.75 square kilometers of mangroves are located within designated forest reserves. This signifies that approximately 4.14% of the total mangrove area is officially protected within these forest reserves. Having a portion of the mangrove area within forest reserves is vital for their preservation and sustainable management. The forest reserves serve as protected zones where activities detrimental to the mangroves, such as indiscriminate logging or habitat destruction, are regulated or prohibited. This helps maintain the ecological balance and the diverse array of flora and fauna that depend on mangrove ecosystems.
• In the Rivers/Bayelsa region of Nigeria, the mangrove forest area spans a vast 5,435.96 square kilometers. Within this extensive expanse, 90.62 square kilometers of mangroves are designated within forest reserves. This indicates that approximately 1.67% of the total mangrove area is safeguarded within these specific forest reserves.[20]
• In the Cross River/Akwa Ibom region, the mangrove forest spans an expansive area of 721.86 square kilometers, and within this expanse, 67.19 square kilometers fall under the protection of forest reserves, accounting for a notable 9.31%. Altogether, considering all regions, the total mangrove forest area amounts to an impressive 9,723.14 square kilometers, with 304.69 square kilometers nestled within designated forest reserves.[20]

The Niger Delta mangrove forests play critical roles for 60% of local peoples who rely on the land and sea for survival.[21] The forests contribute local therapeutic, amenity, heritage, spiritual, and existence values.[10] Responses from a survey conducted in 2007 and 2008 evaluating mangrove social value in three Niger Delta communities indicated approximately 85% of participant households had previously utilized mangrove vegetation as a medicinal remedy and between 65% and 71% of villagers recognized the mangrove forests as a place of repose. Further, each study village relied on the local mangrove forest for carrying out cultural traditions (relying on forest as an ancestral burying site or place of festivity such as in Buguma), spiritual significance, and the survival of locally resource-dependent communities.[10]

Another study evaluating the socio-economic importance of mangrove forests to 950 households residing in Akassa, Bayelsa revealed a strong connection between mangroves and the primary and secondary occupations of individuals living in proximity to the forests. The study noted that while not all residents’ vocations directly relied on mangrove resource extraction, all households depended on the forest for resources to fulfill their basic physiological needs (such as fuelwood, mangrove material for medicine, wood to construct shelter, and forest space for hunting sustenance staples like snails, fish and crab).[22] The Niger Delta mangrove forests directly (through raw materials) and indirectly (through forest-based products) offer economically beneficial resources for Nigerian rural and urban communities alike, with eight out of the ten most lucrative vocations dependent on thriving mangrove populations. These occupations include canoe carving, logging, timber harvesting, building, fishing, sawmilling, traditional medicine, and trading.[22]

The Center for Environment and Human Rights Development (CEHRD), a non-governmental organization situated in the Niger Delta region, collaborated with various stakeholders, including local inhabitants, initiating multiple initiatives. These initiatives aimed at educating the local populace in systematic mangrove restoration and conservation practices. The projects encompassed practical training and focused group dialogues involving local communities, governmental bodies, coastal restoration specialists, regulatory bodies, non-profit organizations, and the academic sector. These efforts resulted in the formulation of a viable framework for the restoration and conservation of mangroves. In the subsequent sections, we elaborate on the responsibilities of stakeholders in attaining sustainable mangrove restoration and conservation.

Given the potential challenges outlined for establishing and executing a mangrove ecosystem restoration initiative in the Niger Delta region, overcoming these hurdles involves the identification of native ecosystems slated for restoration and the construction of benchmark models. These models are crucial for devising and conveying a shared vision regarding project objectives and aspirations, aiming to prevent ecological shifts or substitutions. These benchmark models should mirror actual ecosystems central to conservation and restoration endeavors, preferably depicting mangrove ecosystems with minimal to no degradation. In accordance with,[48] six fundamental ecosystem characteristics can be employed to define the reference environment:

• Absence of Risks: It is crucial to ensure the ecosystem is not threatened by direct risks such as pollution, invasive species, or deforestation.
• Environmental Health: To sustain the target ecosystem, appropriate environmental conditions encompassing soil, water, and topographical factors are necessary.
• Species Composition: The presence of native species characteristic of the ideal reference habitat is essential, while undesired species should be absent.
• Diverse Structure: Key structural elements, including demographic phases, trophic levels, vegetation layers, and spatial habitat variety, should exhibit a wide range.
• Ecosystem Performance: Adequate levels of growth, production, nutrient cycling, decomposition, species interactions, and disturbance rates are vital at the reference site.
• Integration into Larger Environment: The ecosystem should be effectively integrated into its broader landscape or aquatic surroundings through both abiotic and biotic processes and interactions.

1. It will enable a comprehensive approach to mangrove restoration.
2. The framework underscores skill enhancement. Involving and training local individuals in mangrove restoration under the guidance of local experts will decrease the overall restoration expenses.
3. It will promote progress by augmenting natural assets and instigating policies and laws for sustainable mangrove management.
4. It will foster the exchange of information among stakeholders.
5. Implementing a restoration framework that incorporates thorough awareness-raising and mobilization of stakeholders for collective action is incredibly timely. It will cultivate a sense of urgency for sustainability, igniting a strong commitment to restoration and conservation efforts.
6. The framework will elevate environmental consciousness, encourage sustainable practices, and promote knowledge advancement.
7. The framework advocates for specialized training and capacity development in areas like ecosystem engineering and taxonomy.

1. Coastal communities are becoming increasingly disinterested in supporting restoration efforts due to escalating degradation and lax enforcement of environmental policies.
2. The elevated levels of insecurity, such as rampant kidnapping and illegal extortions like "matching-ground",[27] create an unsafe environment, hindering smooth operations.
3. Insufficient funding for restoration projects and a deficiency in skills related to science communication and the formulation of data-driven policies pose significant challenges.
4. Inadequate internet services and unreliable power supply in coastal communities further exacerbate the challenges faced in the implementation of restoration efforts.
5. Extensive degradation spanning decades, notably from crude oil pollution and uncontrolled mangrove harvesting in the Niger Delta, foster a feeling of hopelessness and disengagement in restoration endeavors.
6. Insufficient knowledge and expertise are significant barriers to implementing sustainable mangrove management actions effectively.
7. A contextual challenge is the restricted access to state-of-the-art facilities and inadequate research funding.

The ecological importance of mangroves expands well beyond the resources of their roots and wood. Playing a key part in many fish, invertebrate, crustacean, and mollusk species’ lifecycles, mangroves offer organisms a breeding ground,[58] shelter, and sustenance (mangroves are capable of producing 3.65 tons of leaf matter per hectare per year, which is a key contribution to the food web that supports juvenile fish).[59] Mangroves offer these services to approximately 75% of the local commercially harvested fish population;[59] in a properly functioning mangrove ecosystem, this means ~1.08 tons of fish can be supported by one hectare of mangroves each year.[59] Mangroves are also used as shelter and breeding grounds by small mammals, shore birds, reptiles, and insects.[59] One study analyzing local species dependency on mangrove populations in Pagbilao Bay, Quezon, discovered that nearly 128 fish species, 56 bird species, and 9 species of paneid shrimp relied on mangrove survival for breeding and shelter requirements.[59]

Mangrove roots offer a variety of essential services to local species and native communities

OPEC oil exports by country

Beyond supplying a sundry of basic biological needs to marine and terrestrial organisms, mangrove populations are also essential in preventing erosion[58] and preserving the surrounding coastal landscape. UNEP research has demonstrated that the mangrove's robust build is efficient at reducing the total destructive capability of storms and wind surges by 70 to 90 percent.[59] Mangroves also help protect the health and overall biodiversity of surrounding ecosystems by acting as a water filter. Filtration is enabled by the mangrove's capability to absorb and store heavy metals that would otherwise result in the release of metal pollution into nearshore water bodies.[60] Mangroves are also efficient sites of carbon storage. Gail Chmura, scientist at McGill University, revealed a mangrove's carbon storing capability is greater than that of a terrestrial forest; per-year, mangroves are capable of storing 42 million tons of carbon/hectare.[61]

There are many environmental threats to the mangrove forests in the Niger Delta.

Oil extraction is the largest threat to Nigeria's mangrove forests. Comprising 97 percent of Nigeria's total exports, the oil-rich Niger Delta produces up to two million barrels of crude oil a day, which has placed Nigeria as the 9th oil producing country in the world.[62] Such extensive oil extraction has come at great environmental and social cost. Since 1958, the Nigerian Federal Ministry of Environment has estimated 13 million barrels of oil have been spilled during extraction processes. These spills are the product of many factors, which include: unenforced drilling regulations, refinery leaks, pipeline corrosion, vandalism, and human error.[63] The total number of annual spills has gradually increased since 1958, from approximately 250 spills per year to 500 spills per year.[63] The Nigerian Oil Industry, which primarily extracts oil amongst the Niger Delta mangrove forests, has consequently deforested mangrove ecological zones for drilling purposes, and deteriorated the health of the surrounding mangroves.[63] Petroleum has toxicological impacts on mangrove trees, but also causes direct physical damage.[63] The toxic effects of both surface-level and sediment deposit oil exposure on mangrove health has been repeatedly scientifically documented. In 1986, scientists analyzing the impact of the Bahía las Minas oil spill on coastal vegetation reported clusters of dying mangroves in proximity to where oil had washed ashore.[63] On average, studies revealed mangrove fatality rates were highest during the first six-months of a spill; thus, fresh crude oil spills had greater toxicity than “weathered” oil.[63] Other natural experiments noted that factors such as mangrove exposure to water currents and spill contamination control plays a substantive role in predicting the extent of oil damage on a mangrove population. Oil contact with mangrove seedlings also revealed extensive damage; when placed in the presence of crude, greater than 96 percent of mangrove seedlings died.[63]

Petroleum, which comprises hydrocarbon compound contaminants such as PAHs (Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons), has been connected to plant chlorophyll damage. As a result of PAH root absorption, mangrove leaf pigmentation is altered, limiting photosynthesis.[63] Regardless of oil toxicity or soil absorption capacity, mangroves can be fatally damaged from surface-oil spills as oil coats cells that allow oxygen to reach the roots, resulting in oxygen deprivation and incapacity of necessary biological processes.[63]

Historically, petroleum's detrimental impact on delta biodiversity (including threatening mangrove existence) has sparked non-violent and violent citizen responses. Communities facing threats to health, livelihoods and prosperity[64] from the economic, environmental, and structural injustice resulting from local oil extraction have reacted together to fight for the indigenous right to existence and Niger Delta resource autonomy.[64] While some movements such as the Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People (MOSOP) relayed demands through non-violent protest,[64] other organizations have responded to repeated degradative practices and governmentally unenforced industry regulations through violence. Established in 2006, the Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta (MEND) is a rebel militant group challenging wealth polarization, environmental disregard, and economic instability brought about by delta oil production.[65] Through monkeywrenching industry equipment, blowing-up pipelines, and kidnapping oil workers, MEND seeks to fracture Nigeria's oil economy.[66] Despite justifying their violent actions by the need to obtain justice, MEND is recognized by various international governing bodies as a terrorist organization.[64]

In addition to mangrove degradation from regional oil extraction practices, mass deforestation has threatened Niger Delta mangrove populations. A study published in 2011 by Oluseyi Fabiyi revealed that anthropogenic development was the chief agent driving deforestation in Southwestern Nigeria.[67] These anthropogenic factors included agricultural growth and urban expansion. Fabiyi argued these variables led to greater deforestation rates than forest clearing resulting from oil extraction.[67]

In a GIS analysis of deforestation patterns of Niger Delta wetlands conducted by Glory Enaruvbe and Ozien Atafo in 2014, water body area in the target location decreased by 7 percent in 11 years (between 2002 and 2013), and forest area decreased by four percent.[67] Enaruvbe and Atafo noted that locals’ perceptions of economic opportunity and increased demand for ecological services guided increased deforestation patterns.[67]

Numerous elements contribute to the depletion and deterioration of the mangrove forest within the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria. These encompass reclaiming land for constructing settlements, establishing fish farms, building roads and electrical infrastructure, timber logging, gathering fuelwood, engaging in oil exploration/exploitation, along with activities linked to it, improper waste disposal, and the invasion of Nypa fruticans.

Timber and Fuel Wood Gathering

Fuel Wood Gathering in Nigeria Leading to Deforestation

The mangrove forest serves as a timber source, with its species being extensively utilized as fuel for small-scale industrial boilers due to their high thermal capacity. The red mangrove, specifically Rhizophora racemosa, stands as the most heavily exploited species, employed for various purposes including firewood, poles, and timber. The escalating demand for fuelwood prompts the depletion of mangroves in multiple regions of the Niger Delta, driven by the necessity to fulfill household energy requirements and generate income.[68]

Despite exploitation, fragmentation, and degradation, no policy has been enacted in Nigeria with the sole purpose to conserve endangered mangrove forests. Although neither federal or state institutions have ratified protection efforts, citizens of the Niger Delta states have banded together in attempt to defend the depreciating mangrove populations. One coalition, the Mangrove Forest Conservation Society of Nigeria, established in 1995, has spread its vision of establishing peaceful and sustainable coexistence between regional rural development and mangrove ecosystems across numerous Niger Delta cities (such as Asaba, Benin, Calabar, Lagos, Port Harcourt, Uyo, and Yenegoa).[72]

Unintentionally affecting mangrove conservation, in 1989, the National Policy on Environment was developed in Nigeria.[73] This policy resulted in 14.2% of Nigeria's land mass qualifying as protected area, securing 988 nationally protected reserves and 12 protected areas under international conventions.[74] According to the Nigerian Department of National Parks, the reserves collectively represent a variety of Nigeria's most essential ecological zones; among these signified zones are tropical and wetland forests.[73] Despite federally declaring these 1,000 sites protected, under-regulation and mismanagement has resulted in anthropogenic exploitation of reserve resources.[73] Deforestation has been propelled by demand for bushmeat, timber, and vegetation.[73]

Example of NDVI global biosphere measurement (2002)

Although mangrove conservation policy has yet to be established in Nigeria, published studies have demonstrated the affirmative prospective impact human intervention can have on remediating and protecting mangrove forests. A 2013 GIS study conducted by Oluwagbenga Ol Orimoogunje and Opeyemi Ajibola- James analyzed the recovery capability of oil exposed mangroves in two polluted Niger Delta sites.[75] Both sites contained contaminated areas greater than 20 km ² in size, but one site was remediated whereas the other was not. Mangrove health was monitored for four time periods via RENA and GPS imagery spanning 1986 to 2007. In 1986 (pre-spill), both locations contained a Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) value of .32. NDVI, which measures the amount of infrared energy produced by a plant, allowed researchers to determine the health of the mangrove study population based on the infrared levels reflected off the canopy surface. This number served as starting point to determine the quantitative impact oil pollution had on mangrove health.[75] In 2000, six years after the spill, NDVI values had changed. The remediated site contained a NDVI of .30 where the non-remediated site was evaluated at .27. After 2000, NDVI values began to increase in both fields, but the remediated site's NDVI remained higher than the non-remediated site (2007 remediated site had a NDVI of .36 whereas the non-remediated site's was .34).[75] This study suggested that oil caused a decline in vegetation area and health, but that with remediation, health was mostly recovered, compared to sites that were not remediated.[75]

The impacts of mangrove deforestation and degradation in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria are significant, particularly given the region's vulnerability to climate change. This paper explores these implications in terms of climate change mitigation and adaptation, as well as the socio-economic effects of extreme weather events caused by climate change.