Nigerian lowland forests

The biogeographic regionalization of Earth's terrestrial biodiversity, known as Terrestrial Ecoregions of the World (TEOW), is made up of 867 ecoregions that are divided into 14 biomes. In addition to offering a comprehensive map of terrestrial biodiversity, TEOW also provides a global species database for ecological analyses and priority setting, a logical biogeographic framework for large-scale conservation strategies, a map for enhancing biogeographic literacy, and a foundation for the Global 200.

Nigerian lowland forests
Forest near Benin City
Map of the Nigerian lowland forests
Ecology
RealmAfrotropical
BiomeTropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests
Borders
Geography
Area67,340 km2 (26,000 sq mi)
Countries
Coordinates6.8°N 5.0°E / 6.8; 5.0
Conservation
Conservation statuscritical/endangered

The Nigerian lowland forests, also known as the Nigerian rainforest, are tropical moist forest ecoregion in southwestern Nigeria and southeastern Benin. The ecoregion is densely populated and home to several large cities, including Lagos, Ibadan, and Benin City. They are considered one of the most biodiverse habitats in the country and are home to a wide range of plant and animal species.[1] There is still significant tree cover, but the remaining enclaves of forest are increasingly fragmented. Though many areas are now used for timber, which provides business for timber traders. The ecoregion is wetter along the coast and drier inland, resulting in bands of vegetation zones that run parallel to the coast for the 400 km length of the region.[2][3][4][5] With the establishment of a Department of Woods and Forests for the Colony and Protectorate of Lagos in 1897 to control timber extraction that had started as early as the 1880s, Nigeria saw the beginning of the first kind of forest management To better control the use of forest resources, the British colonial authority established forest reserves.[6]

Through the implementation of forestry ordinances,16 local communities were granted the freedom to hunt, fish, gather, tap rubber, and farm within designated areas. The majority of the country's forests were reserved before 1930, though some were added in the Niger Delta and the savanna region as late as the 1960s and 1970s. As a result, Nigeria now has 96,000 km2 of designated forest reserves, with 20,700 km2 of those reserves being in the forest ecological zone, and the remaining 82 reserves being in the country's lowland forests, which make up 10,504 km2 or about 15% of the total area.[7] Large sections of forest continued to fall beyond the forest reserves even during this time. Prior to 1960, working plans were used to manage forest reserves, and colonial officials made sure that these plans were strictly followed. The amount of timber being extracted, however, increased by 1960, and once the 1970s saw the start of oil windfall earnings, domestic demand for timber goods skyrocketed. In an effort to boost foreign cash and support local businesspeople, economic trees like mahoganies and iroko (Milicia excelsa), which were formerly controlled by foreigners and expatriates, were selectively logged in huge quantities under laxer forestry rules. These are great economic trees that aid the people in development and building of houses.

To ensure a steady supply of hardwood, the Nigerian forestry departments, like other African forestry authorities, attempted to take up the challenge of silviculture in moist forests beginning in the 1950s. However, the fact that tropical forests are exhaustible after continuous extractive activities was realized very early in the exploitation history.[8] This may have evolved from the original 1906 timber regulations that required loggers to establish plantations or release patches of spontaneous regeneration.[9] Some of the techniques utilized artificial regeneration, but others depended on natural regeneration. The Malayan experience served as the basis for the 1940s adoption of the Nigerian tropical shelter wood system. It involves climbers cutting and opening up the canopy by killing trees thought to be less valuable, allowing valuable tree species to regenerate naturally.[9] 6,15

Geography

The Nigerian lowland forests are bounded on the south by coastal mangroves and the Gulf of Guinea,[10] on the east by the Niger River and its delta,[11][12] on the north by the Guinean forest-savanna mosaic. On the west it is bounded by the Dahomey Gap, a drier coastal region where the forest-savanna mosaic extends all the way to the ocean, separating the Lower Guinean forests, of which the Nigerian lowland forests are part, from the Upper Guinean forests of West Africa.[13] It contains over 560 indigenous species and supports the timber, which is used for building.

Climate

The climate of the ecoregion is Tropical savanna climate - dry winter (Köppen climate classification (Aw)). This climate is characterized by relatively even temperatures throughout the year, and a pronounced dry season. The driest month has less than 60mm of precipitation, and is drier than the average month.[14][15] Climate change affect the survival of some trees. Under a harsh sun and extreme dry weather, some plants will start dying off.[16] The authors maintained that Nigeria is experiencing different change in climate that affects her vegetation. There has been changes on how rain falls, sometimes harsh sun and cold, which reduces the growth of plants in the country. High rainfall also affect the survival of our forest. Flooding, which have occurred in many parts of Nigeria.[17]

Flora and fauna
Nigerian flora and fauna
Flora and fauna in Nigeria

Nigerian lowland forests are recognized as one of the biodiversity hotspots in Africa.[1] They support a remarkable diversity of flora and fauna. The region is home to numerous endemic plant species, including rare and endangered ones.[18] The forests provide habitat for a rich variety of animals, such as primates (including the Nigeria-Cameroon chimpanzee), elephants, leopards, antelopes, reptiles, amphibians, and a vast array of bird species.

About 48% of the territory is closed forest, mostly broadleaf evergreen trees. Another 36% is open forest, 5% is urban and built up, and the remainder is wetland and herbaceous cover.[4] Because rainfall declines with distance from the sea, the ecoregion exhibits climate bands with vegetation zones that parallel the coast. Closest to the sea is the rain forest zone, followed by the mixed deciduous forest zone and farthest inland tis he parkland zone.[2] In the rainforest zone ,the common trees are of the Leguminosae family (Brachystegia), Cylicodiscus gabunensis, Gossweilerodendron balsamiferum, Piptadeniastrum africanum, and the Meliaceae family (Entandrophragma, Guarea, Khaya ivorensis, and Lovoa trichilioides.[2]

While in general ,the levels of animal endemism are low in the ecoregion, there are some notable endemic species. The endangered white-throated guenon (Cercopithecus erythrogaster) is only found in this ecoregion. The endangered Ibadan malimbe (Malimbus ibadanensis) is found in the northern parkland zone. A recent survey of the Niger Delta recorded the endangered crested genet (Genetta cristata). The Nigeria crag gecko (Cnemaspis petrodroma) and the Perrots' toad (Bufo perreti) have also been recorded in the region.[2]

Services provided by these forests

Nigerian lowland forests are not just lush, verdant landscapes teeming with biodiversity; they are also ecosystems that offer a wide range of services crucial for the environment and human well-being.[19] there are various services provided by these invaluable forests, including economic, regulatory, provisioning, educational, and protective services.[20][21]

Economic Service
Forest resources

Nigerian lowland forests offer a significant economic service to local communities and the nation as a whole.[21] This service includes:

  • Timber and Non-Timber Forest Products: The forests are a vital source of timber for construction and furniture making. Additionally, they provide a wide array of non-timber forest products such as medicinal plants, spices, and fruit, which are often harvested and sold, contributing to local economies.[22] Some notable timber species found in these forests include:
  1. Mahogany (Khaya spp.): Mahogany is a highly sought-after tropical hardwood known for its beautiful reddish-brown wood. It is used extensively in furniture making, cabinetry, and interior finishing in construction.[23][24]
  2. Iroko (Milicia excelsa): Iroko is another valuable hardwood used for various construction purposes, particularly in outdoor applications due to its resistance to decay and termites.
  3. African Teak (Tectona grandis): African Teak, like its Asian counterpart, is prized for its natural resistance to insects and rot. It is predominant in the lowland rainforest zone of southwestern Nigeria[25] It is used in boat building, furniture, and flooring.
  4. Obeche (Triplochiton scleroxylon): Obeche is a softwood that is used in construction, and joinery, as a preferred choice for the production of plywood. It is found in abundance in the lowland forest zones of Africa including Nigeria.[26]
  5. African Walnut (Lovoa trichilioides): This hardwood is prized for its use in furniture making and cabinetry and is also available in Nigerian lowland forests.[27]

The Non-timber forest products from Nigerian lowland forests include:

  1. Medicinal Plants: The forests are rich in medicinal plants with cultural and economic value. Many indigenous communities rely on these plants for traditional medicine, they are found in states such as Cross river and Edo which are all part of the lowland rainforest zone.
  2. Spices: The forests are a source of various spices, including pepper, cloves, and nutmeg, which are used for culinary and medicinal purposes.[28]
  3. Fruits: The forests yield a variety of fruits like bush mango, bush pear, and wild figs. These fruits are harvested and consumed locally, while surplus production can be sold in markets.[28]
  4. Bushmeat: The wild game is an essential source of protein for many local communities, and hunting is common in the lowland forest regions.[29]
  • Eco-Tourism: These lush forests attract nature enthusiasts, scientists, and tourists, thereby creating opportunities for eco-tourism. This industry boosts local economies by providing jobs and income through activities like guided tours and accommodation services.[30] Some of the unique eco-tourism sites in Nigerian lowland forests, offers distinctive features which draw visitors, including foreigners, to partake in the splendors of nature. They include:
  1. Cross River National Park: Located in the Cross River State, this park is one of Nigeria's most renowned eco-tourism destinations.[31] It is home to diverse wildlife, including the critically endangered Cross River gorilla. Tourists are drawn to its lush rainforests, breathtaking waterfalls, and the opportunity to witness the rich biodiversity of the region. Foreign tourists, particularly from Europe and North America, are frequent visitors.[32]
  2. Omo Forest Reserve: Situated in the southwestern part of the country, Omo Forest Reserve boasts a mosaic of habitats, including primary rainforests and freshwater swamps.[33] Its tranquil setting and biodiversity attract birdwatchers, botanists, and nature lovers. Tourists from Europe, particularly the United Kingdom and Germany, are common visitors.
  3. Okomu National Park: Located in Edo State, Okomu National Park offers visitors a chance to explore pristine rainforests and observe a variety of wildlife, including forest elephants, monkeys, and numerous bird species.- It is an attractive destination for ecotourists and researchers, with foreign tourists arriving from Europe and North America.[34]
  4. Edumanom Forest Reserve: This forest reserve in Cross River State is celebrated for its striking landscapes, clear streams, and the opportunity to explore unique flora and fauna. It is a favorite among hikers and nature photographers. Tourists from countries such as the United States and Canada are frequent visitors.[35]
  • Carbon Credits and Offsets: Nigerian lowland forests help sequester carbon dioxide, making them an essential asset in the fight against climate change. They can be utilized to generate carbon credits and offsets, which can be traded on international carbon markets, offering economic benefits to the nation.[36] Owners can emit a fixed quantity of greenhouse gases with the use of carbon offsets, also known as carbon credits. They are a part of a cap-and-trade scheme in which corporations that pollute get credits to keep doing so up to a predetermined, regularly lowered limit. Private businesses are encouraged to cut emissions by selling extra allowances and investing in more credits.[37] There are two ways to account for the greenhouse gases causing climate change: carbon offsets and carbon credits. Carbon offsets measure the amount of greenhouse gas removal from the environment, such as planting trees to absorb ozone and carbon dioxide. The right to emit one ton of carbon dioxide is represented by carbon credits, which are tradable instruments that are assigned to emitting sources or that are sold at auction. Both seek to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in an effort to slow down global warming. To lessen their carbon footprints, businesses can trade carbon credits.[38]

Regulation Service

These forests play a vital role in regulating environmental processes and maintaining ecological balance:

  • Climate Regulation: The forests help regulate local and regional climates by absorbing and releasing moisture, stabilizing temperatures, and sequestering carbon dioxide.[39] This, in turn, helps mitigate the effects of climate change.[40]
  • Water Quality and Flow Regulation: They act as natural filters, improving water quality by trapping sediments and impurities.[41] Also, they regulate water flow, reducing the risk of flooding during heavy rainfall and ensuring a stable supply of water during dry periods.[42]

The regulation service from these forests cannot be over-emphasized as their distinctive characteristics enables their functionality in this role: One of the standout features of Cross River National Park is the vast canopy of its rainforests which aids its role in regulating local and regional climates.[43] Lush forests act as enormous sponges, absorbing and releasing moisture, which, in turn, has a cooling effect on the environment.[44] Also, the dense vegetation helps stabilize temperatures and prevent extreme fluctuations while the Omo Forest Reserve as a freshwater swamp and primary rainforest has the capacity to contributes to local climate stability by maintaining consistent humidity levels.[45] It also plays a vital role in water retention and release, reducing the risk of both droughts and floods. Also the rainforests help sequester carbon dioxide, one of the primary greenhouse gases contributing to climate change.[45] The park's forests, through their extensive tree cover, play a crucial role in reducing atmospheric CO2 levels and consequently aid in mitigating the impacts of climate change.[46]

Provision Service

These forests offer essential resources for human survival and well-being:[47]

  • Provision of Food: They provide a source of food through the collection of fruits, nuts, and edible plants, particularly for local communities living in or near the forest.[48] Some specific forest products include:
  1. Bush Mango: These forests yield the highly sought-after bush mango (Irvingia spp.),[49] whose fruit is used in various dishes and for its culinary oil. Bush mango is rich in nutrients and has both cultural and economic significance.[50]
  2. Bush Pear: The lowland forests offer delicious and nutritious bush pear (Dacryodes edulis), often consumed as a fruit, also it is a vital source of nutrition and is traded locally.[51]
  3. Wild Figs: Nigerian lowland forests also provide a variety of wild fig species, which are a valuable source of vitamins and dietary fiber.[52]
  • Fuel: Firewood and charcoal are essential sources of fuel in Nigeria, particularly in rural areas where access to alternative energy sources is limited. The forests supply an abundance of firewood and wood for charcoal production, supporting daily cooking and heating needs.[53]
  • Special Materials: Nigerian lowland forests offer various special materials that are used for both practical and traditional purposes, contributing to local livelihoods and cultural practices:
  1. Rattan and Cane: These flexible materials are used for crafting furniture, baskets, and other woven products, providing a sustainable source of income for local artisans.[54]
  2. Medicinal Plants: Nigerian lowland forests are repositories of medicinal plants used in traditional and modern medicine. Many indigenous communities rely on these forests for natural remedies.[55]
  3. Bamboo: Bamboo is a versatile material used for making furniture, crafts, and construction in local communities.[56]

Educational Service
Forest research activities

Nigerian lowland forests are outdoor classrooms for both formal and informal education:[57]

  • Scientific Research: These forests are essential for scientific research and environmental studies. They serve as living laboratories where researchers can study various ecological processes, leading to a better understanding of the natural world.[58]
  • Biodiversity Conservation Education: They provide a rich educational resource for teaching and raising awareness about biodiversity, ecology, and conservation. Educational institutions often conduct field trips to teach students about ecosystems and environmental stewardship.[59]

Protection Service

Nigerian lowland forests offer protection services that safeguard both the environment and human populations:

  • Natural Disaster Mitigation: The forests act as a barrier against natural disasters such as landslides, soil erosion, and flash floods.[60] Their dense vegetation and root systems stabilize the soil and reduce the risk of calamities in hilly and mountainous regions.[61]
  • Habitat for Wildlife: These forests provide a habitat for a wide variety of plant and animal species. By protecting these ecosystems, they, in turn, protect the wildlife and biodiversity within them.[62]
    1. Forest Elephant Sanctuary: The Okomu National Park, for instance, protects an essential population of forest elephants. These forests offer a sanctuary for these magnificent creatures, allowing them to thrive and contributing to their conservation.[63]
    2. Endangered Primates: Cross River National Park is a refuge for critically endangered primates, including the Cross River gorilla. The forests play a critical role in safeguarding these rare species from poaching and habitat destruction.[64]

Threats and conservation challenges

Nigerian lowland forests face several threats and conservation challenges.[18] Deforestation, mainly driven by agricultural expansion, logging, and urbanization, poses a significant risk to the integrity of these forests.[65] The conversion of forested areas to farmland and the extraction of timber have resulted in habitat fragmentation, loss of biodiversity, and increased vulnerability to invasive species. Additionally, illegal logging and unsustainable hunting practices further exacerbate the conservation challenges.[66][67]

Nigerian lowland forests, no doubt, face several threats and conservation challenges that jeopardize their integrity and biodiversity. A more elaborate discussion of these threats and challenges follows:

Tree felling in Nigeria
Deforestation in Nigeria

Deforestation and habitat loss: Deforestation is a major threat to Nigerian lowland forests.[68] The expansion of agriculture, particularly for the cultivation of cash crops like oil palm, cocoa, and rubber, has led to extensive clearing of forested areas. Logging for timber extraction, both legal and illegal, also contributes to habitat loss and degradation.[69] As a result, the forests are fragmented, reducing the availability of continuous habitats for wildlife and disrupting ecological processes.[70][71]

Unsustainable logging and illegal activities: Unsustainable logging practices pose a significant threat to the Nigerian lowland forests.[72] Illegal logging, in particular, is rampant and exacerbates the problem.[69] The unregulated extraction of timber leads to the loss of valuable tree species, alters forest structure, and disrupts ecosystem dynamics.[73] Additionally, illegal activities such as poaching, wildlife trafficking, and collection of rare plant species further endanger the biodiversity of the forests.[74][75]

Agricultural expansion and land conversion: The conversion of forested areas to agricultural land is a significant driver of deforestation in Nigerian lowland forests. The growing demand for food and cash crops, coupled with population growth, has resulted in the clearing of forests for large-scale farming operations.[69] This land conversion not only reduces forest cover but also leads to soil erosion, loss of soil fertility, and increased vulnerability to invasive species.[76][77]

Infrastructure development and urbanization: Infrastructure development, including road construction, dams, and urban expansion, poses a threat to the Nigerian lowland forests.[69] These activities often require land clearance and result in habitat fragmentation.[78] Infrastructure development also facilitates access to previously remote areas, leading to increased deforestation and exploitation of forest resources.[79][80][81]

Climate change and fragmentation: Climate change impacts, such as increased temperatures and altered rainfall patterns, can have adverse effects on the Nigerian lowland forests.[82] Changes in climatic conditions may disrupt the ecological balance and affect the distribution and abundance of plant and animal species.[83] Fragmentation of the forests exacerbates these impacts by limiting species' ability to migrate and adapt to changing environmental conditions.[84][85][86]

Poverty: Nigeria is experiencing a high level of poverty, and this has led many to deforestation. People are going into the bush with the intention of fetching firewood, cutting down trees for timber, and for so many other reasons. The level of poverty ravaging the majority of the masses is tripling on a daily basis.[87] It is also noted that Nigeria is the most deforested country in the world, which is also attributed to population growth. People are increasingly clearing forests to inhabit and farms to survive. This is increasing climate change and affecting the weather too.[88]

Illiteracy: owing to lack of environmental understanding, dependency on forest resources owing to poverty, exclusion from conservation efforts, susceptibility to criminal activity, and adherence to unsustainable traditions, illiteracy can result in the deterioration, destruction, and exploitation of forests. Promoting literacy, giving people other livelihood options, including communities in conservation, assuring legal empowerment, and incorporating traditional knowledge are crucial tactics to help ameliorate these problems. These steps are intended to lessen the damaging effects of illiteracy on forests and to advance environmentally friendly forest management.[89]

Conservation efforts

Several initiatives and organizations are working to protect and conserve the Nigerian lowland forests.[90] The Nigerian government, along with international conservation organizations, has established protected areas and national parks to safeguard the biodiversity within these forests.[91] Efforts are being made to promote sustainable land-use practices, reforestation, and community-based conservation programs. Local communities and indigenous groups are actively involved in conservation efforts, as their livelihoods and cultural heritage are intricately linked to the forests.[92][93]

Conservation efforts in Nigerian lowland forests are crucial to protecting their biodiversity, ecosystem services, and the livelihoods of local communities.[4] In Nigeria, some of the conservation initiatives in place include:

map showing national parks in Nigeria
National parks in Nigeria

Protected Areas and National Parks: The Nigerian government has established protected areas and national parks to safeguard the Nigerian lowland forests.[92] These areas, such as Cross River National Park, Okomu National Park, and Omo Forest Reserve, serve as important refuges for biodiversity. They provide legal protection to key forest habitats, restrict unsustainable activities, and support research and monitoring programs.[93]

Community-based conservation: Engaging local communities in conservation efforts is vital for the long-term success of protecting Nigerian lowland forests.[94] Community-based conservation initiatives involve collaboration with local residents, traditional leaders, and indigenous groups. These efforts focus on empowering communities, supporting sustainable livelihood alternatives, promoting traditional knowledge, and involving locals in forest management and decision-making processes.[95]

Reforestation and restoration: Reforestation and restoration programs play a crucial role in conserving Nigerian lowland forests. These initiatives aim to restore degraded areas, establish buffer zones, and promote the recovery of native vegetation.[96][97] Afforestation programs, such as planting of indigenous tree species, are undertaken to increase forest cover and connectivity, enhancing habitat availability for wildlife.[98][99]

Sustainable land-use practices: Promoting sustainable land-use practices is essential to mitigate the threats posed by agriculture and land conversion.[100] Agroforestry, which combines agriculture with tree planting, is encouraged as a way to maintain forest cover and provide sustainable livelihoods.[101] Promoting organic farming, responsible logging practices, and reducing reliance on harmful agrochemicals are also part of sustainable land-use approaches.[102]

Research and monitoring: Research studies and monitoring programs provide valuable insights into the status of Nigerian lowland forests, species richness, and ecosystem dynamics.[103] These efforts help in identifying priority conservation areas, understanding the impacts of human activities, and informing evidence-based conservation strategies.[104] Collaboration between scientists, research institutions, and conservation organizations is crucial for generating data and knowledge.[105]

International collaborations: International collaborations and partnerships are important for conserving Nigerian lowland forests.[106][107] Organizations like the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS), and Rainforest Foundation work with local stakeholders and the Nigerian government to provide technical expertise, funding, and capacity-building support.[108] These collaborations help strengthen conservation efforts and enable the sharing of best practices.[109][110]

Policy and law enforcement: Effective policies and law enforcement mechanisms are essential for conserving Nigerian lowland forests.[111] Strengthening legislation related to forest protection, implementing sustainable forest management practices, and enforcing regulations against illegal logging and wildlife trafficking are critical components.[112] It requires cooperation among government agencies, law enforcement bodies, and local communities to ensure compliance and deter illegal activities.[113][114]

Alternative Livelihood: A fundamental pillar of effective forest conservation lies in providing comprehensive training and support for alternative forms of income within local communities. This approach serves as a powerful strategy in alleviating the pressure on forest resources. By equipping these communities with the knowledge, skills, and resources needed to pursue alternative livelihoods, we not only empower them economically but also actively mitigate the overexploitation of our precious forests.[115]

These communities can diversify their revenue streams by providing training and assistance for alternative vocations including farming, handicrafts, ecotourism, or small-scale businesses. This lessens their need to heavily exploit forest resources to support themselves.

Biodiversity is preserved when pressure on forests is reduced. There is less habitat loss, deforestation, and over-harvesting of plants and wildlife when communities rely less on the income from forests. In turn, this aids in preserving the variety.

Research and education

Research studies are conducted in the Nigerian lowland forests to better understand the ecological processes, identify species richness, and assess the impacts of human activities.[116] Educational programs and awareness campaigns are essential for promoting conservation values among local communities and raising awareness about the importance of preserving these forests for future generations.[117]

Protected areas

Nominally, about 17% of the ecoregion is under some form of official protection, including:[4]

References
  1. "Biodiversity and Protected Areas in West Africa | West Africa". eros.usgs.gov. Retrieved 17 May 2023.
  2. "Nigerian lowland forests". World Wildlife Federation. Retrieved 20 June 2020.
  3. "Map of Ecoregions 2017". Resolve, using WWF data. Retrieved 20 June 2021.
  4. "Nigerian lowland forests". Digital Observatory for Protected Areas. Retrieved 20 June 2021.
  5. "Nigerian lowland forests". The Encyclopedia of Earth. Retrieved 20 June 2021.
  6. Okali, D.; Eyog-Matig, O. (2004). Rain forest management for wood production in West and Central Africa: lessons learned on sustainable forest management in Africa.
  7. Fuwape, J.A.; Akindele, S.O.; Adekunle, V.A. (2006). Forest management and forest landscapes in Nigeria: landscape ecology. Florence: Accademia Italiana di Scienze Forestali.
  8. Isichei, A.O. (1995). Omo Biosphere Reserve, Current Status, Utilization of Biological Resources and Sustainable Management (Nigeria) (11 ed.). Paris: In UNESCO (ed.) South-South Cooperation Programme on Environmentally Sound Socio-Economic Development in the Humid Tropics working papers No. 11.
  9. Okali, D.; Eyog-Matig, O. (2004). Rain forest management for wood production in West and Central Africa: lessons learned on sustainable forest management in Africa.
  10. "Gulf of Guinea Coastal Forests & Mangroves (AT17)". One Earth. Retrieved 18 May 2023.
  11. "Niger Delta Swamp Forests". One Earth. Retrieved 18 May 2023.
  12. Ansah, Christabel Edena; Abu, Itohan-Osa; Kleemann, Janina; Mahmoud, Mahmoud Ibrahim; Thiel, Michael (January 2022). "Environmental Contamination of a Biodiversity Hotspot—Action Needed for Nature Conservation in the Niger Delta, Nigeria". Sustainability. 14 (21): 14256. doi:10.3390/su142114256.
  13. "Nigerian lowland forests". WWF ecoregion profile. Accessed 18 April 2020.
  14. Kottek, M., J. Grieser, C. Beck, B. Rudolf, and F. Rubel, 2006. "World Map of Koppen-Geiger Climate Classification Updated" (PDF). Gebrüder Borntraeger 2006. Retrieved 14 September 2019.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  15. "Dataset - Koppen climate classifications". World Bank. Retrieved 14 September 2019.
  16. Ita, R. E.; Ogbemudia, F. O. (2023). "Climate Change Impact on Nigerian Ecology, Vegetation/Forest, Carbon and Biomass Management". Climate Change Impacts on Nigeria. Springer Climate. pp. 303–316. doi:10.1007/978-3-031-21007-5_16. ISBN 978-3-031-21006-8.
  17. Climate Change Impacts on Nigeria. Springer Climate. 2023. doi:10.1007/978-3-031-21007-5. ISBN 978-3-031-21006-8. S2CID 258221737.
  18. "Nigerian Lowland Forests". One Earth. Retrieved 17 May 2023.
  19. "Forest / Nigeria | Interactive Country Fiches". dicf.unepgrid.ch. Retrieved 18 October 2023.
  20. Adeyoju, S. Kolade (1974). "Forest Resources of Nigeria". The Commonwealth Forestry Review. 53 (2 (156)): 99–119. ISSN 0010-3381. JSTOR 42605247.
  21. Amusa, T. O.; Bada, S. O.; Azeez, I. O. (2017). "Forests and national security in Nigeria: an evaluation of the symboisis and challenges". Library.ui.edu.ng.
  22. Okunomo, K. (23 June 2021). "Utilization of Forest Products in Nigeria". African Journal of General Agriculture. 6 (3).
  23. Osadolor, N; Isikhuemen, E. M.; Balogun, O. S. (2020). "Assessment of Natural Regeneration of African Mahogany Species in Strict Nature Reserve 3, Urhonigbe Forest Reserve, Edo State, Nigeria" (PDF). African Journal of Agriculture Technology and Environment. 9 (1): 86–96.
  24. Olajide, O.; Akinyemi, D. (4 July 2007). "Population structure and density of tree species of Meliaceae family (Mahogany) in a tropical rainforest of Southwestern Nigeria". Global Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences. 13 (1): 13–15. doi:10.4314/gjpas.v13i1.16662. ISSN 2992-4464.
  25. Adekunle, V. A. J.; Alo, A. A.; Adekayode, F. O. (1 June 2011). "Yields and nutrient pools in soils cultivated with Tectona grandis and Gmelina arborea in Nigerian rainforest ecosystem". Journal of the Saudi Society of Agricultural Sciences. 10 (2): 127–135. doi:10.1016/j.jssas.2011.05.001. ISSN 1658-077X.
  26. Hall, John B.; Bada, S. O. (1979). "The Distribution and Ecology of Obeche (Triplochiton Scleroxylon)". Journal of Ecology. 67 (2): 543–564. doi:10.2307/2259111. ISSN 0022-0477. JSTOR 2259111.
  27. Amusa, T. O.; Jimoh, S. O.; Azeez, I. O.; Awodoin, R. O.; Kareem, I. (1 December 2014). "Stock density and fruit yield of African walnut, Plukenetia conophora Mull-Arg (Syn. Tetracarpidium conophorum) in tropical lowland rainforests of southwest Nigeria". Journal of Tropical Forestry and Environment. 4 (2). doi:10.31357/jtfe.v4i2.2036. ISSN 2235-9370.
  28. Adekunle, V.A.J. (2009). "Diversity and Abundance of Lesser-Known Plant Species of Food and Ethnomedicinal Potential in Tropical Rainforest Ecosystem of Southwest Nigeria". Acta Horticulturae (806): 685–694. doi:10.17660/ActaHortic.2009.806.85.
  29. Friant, S (2015). "Drivers of bushmeat hunting and perceptions of zoonoses in Nigerian hunting communities". PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases. 9 (5): e0003792. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0003792. PMC 4441483. PMID 26001078.
  30. Enunwah, Morris (8 March 2023). "Ecotourism in Nigeria: Driving Economic, Social, and Environmental Benefits". Curious Earth | Environment & Climate Change. Retrieved 18 October 2023.
  31. Okpara, Michael (2013). "Capacity and levels of utilization of tourism potentials of Yankari and Cross River National Parks - implications for optimistic ecotourism development in Nigeria". Journal of Hospitality Leisure Sport & Tourism Education. 2 (4): 1–12. S2CID 130791346.
  32. Ngoka, Paulinus Chukwuemeka; Lameed, Gbolagade Akeem (4 May 2014). "Trends in tourism utilization of Yankari and Cross River National Parks". Anatolia. 25 (2): 195–210. Bibcode:2014Anato..25..195N. doi:10.1080/13032917.2013.848217. ISSN 1303-2917. S2CID 129979168.
  33. Okosodo, E. F.; Sarada, P. M. (2021). "Tourism Potential of Plants Species Used for the Treatment of Malaria and Typhoid Fever in Omo Forest Reserve Southwest Nigeria". Journal of Tourism and Hospitality Education. 11: 64–92. doi:10.3126/jthe.v11i0.38247. S2CID 238213491.
  34. Olubunmi, O; Tabitha, T (2022). "Assessment of Tourists' Perception of Okomu National Park as an Eco-Tourism Destination, Edo State, Nigeria". International Journal of Home Economics, Hospitality and Allied Research. 1 (2): 286–293. doi:10.57012/ijhhr.v1n2.012. S2CID 255172299.
  35. Akani, Godfrey C.; Aifesehi, Pedro E.E; Petrozzi, Fabio; Amadi, Nioking; Luiselli, Luca (3 July 2014). "Preliminary surveys of the terrestrial vertebrate fauna (mammals, reptiles, and amphibians) of the Edumanon Forest Reserve, Nigeria". Tropical Zoology. 27 (3): 63–72. doi:10.1080/03946975.2014.944376. ISSN 0394-6975. S2CID 83908331.
  36. Jindal, Rohit; Swallow, Brent; Kerr, John (May 2008). "Forestry‐based carbon sequestration projects in Africa: Potential benefits and challenges". Natural Resources Forum. 32 (2): 116–130. doi:10.1111/j.1477-8947.2008.00176.x. ISSN 0165-0203.
  37. "Carbon Credits and How They Can Offset Your Carbon Footprint". Investopedia. Retrieved 21 October 2023.
  38. "Carbon offsets vs. carbon credits". www.constellation.com. Retrieved 21 October 2023.
  39. Emmanuel, O (2009). "Forestry for sustainable development in Nigeria". Research Gate.
  40. Bonan, Gordon B. (2008). "Forests and Climate Change: Forcings, Feedbacks, and the Climate Benefits of Forests". Science. 320 (5882): 1444–1449. doi:10.1126/science.1155121. ISSN 0036-8075. JSTOR 20054256. PMID 18556546.
  41. Alabi, Mutiu A.; Idowu, Gbolahan; Oyefuga, Olalekan H.; Sunday, Rita M.; Olowokere, Temitope; Odiaka, Folake G. Osanaiye and Stella (September 2013). "Assessing the Ground Water Quality in Sagamu Town, Ogun State, South West Nigeria". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  42. Aladejana, Olabanji Odunayo; Salami, Ayobami Taofeek; Adetoro, Olusola-Ige O. (1 November 2018). "Hydrological responses to land degradation in the Northwest Benin Owena River Basin, Nigeria". Journal of Environmental Management. 225: 300–312. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.07.095. ISSN 0301-4797. PMID 30098496. S2CID 51980729.
  43. Benjamin, A. A.; Usang, N. O. (2019). "Ecosystems Services of the Tropical Rain Forest Environment: Lessons from the Cross River National Park, Nigeria". Journal of Geoscience and Environment Protection.
  44. Streck, Charlotte; Scholz, Sebastian M. (2006). "The Role of Forests in Global Climate Change: Whence We Come and Where We Go". International Affairs (Royal Institute of International Affairs 1944-). 82 (5): 861–879. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2346.2006.00575.x. ISSN 0020-5850. JSTOR 3874204.
  45. Shokoufeh, S; Suhad, A; Miklas, S (2021). "Impact of climate change on wetland ecosystems: A critical review of experimental wetlands". Journal of Environmental Management. 286. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.112160. PMID 33611067. S2CID 231989149.
  46. Brown, Sandra; Sathaye, Jayant; Cannell, Melvin; Kauppi, Pekka E. (1996). "Mitigation of carbon emissions to the atmosphere by forest management". The Commonwealth Forestry Review. 75 (1): 80–91. ISSN 0010-3381. JSTOR 42607279.
  47. Friant, Sagan; Ayambem, Wilfred A.; Alobi, Alobi O.; Ifebueme, Nzube M.; Otukpa, Oshama M.; Ogar, David A.; Alawa, Clement B. I.; Goldberg, Tony L.; Jacka, Jerry K.; Rothman, Jessica M. (2019). "Life on the Rainforest Edge: Food Security in the Agricultural-Forest Frontier of Cross River State, Nigeria". Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems. 3. doi:10.3389/fsufs.2019.00113. ISSN 2571-581X.
  48. Adekunle, Victor A. J.; Bakare, Yekini (1 March 2004). "Rural livelihood benefits from participation in the taungya agroforestry system in Ondo State of Nigeria". Small-scale Forest Economics, Management and Policy. 3 (1): 131–138. doi:10.1007/s11842-004-0009-y. ISSN 1873-7854. S2CID 22539457.
  49. Amusa, Tajudeen O; Jimoh, S Oladunni; Azeez, Ismail O (3 April 2017). "Socio-economic factors influencing marketing of non-timber forest products in tropical lowland rainforests of south-western Nigeria". Southern Forests: A Journal of Forest Science. 79 (2): 161–168. doi:10.2989/20702620.2016.1255411. ISSN 2070-2620. S2CID 90531108.
  50. Chah, J. M.; Ani, N. A.; Irohibe, J. I.; Agwu, A. E. (3 December 2014). "Exploitation of Bush Mango (Irvingia wombolu and Irvingia gabonensis) Among Rural Household in Enugu State, Nigeria". Journal of Agricultural Extension. 18 (2): 44–56. doi:10.4314/jae.v18i2.6. ISSN 2408-6851.
  51. Adewusi, Hassan Gbadebo (2004). Potential for development and conservation of Dacryodes edulis in Sakpoba Forest Reserve, Edo State, in the Niger Delta area of Nigeria (Report). Center for International Forestry Research. pp. 133–147.
  52. Okafor, J.C. (1983). "Horticulturally Promising Indigenous Wild Plant Species of the Nigerian Forest Zone". Acta Horticulturae (123): 165–176. doi:10.17660/ActaHortic.1983.123.15.
  53. Larinde, S. L.; Olasupo, O. O. (2011). "Socio-Economic Importance of Fuelwood Production in Gambari Forest Reserve Area, Oyo State, Nigeria". Journal of Agriculture and Social Research (JASR). 11 (1). doi:10.4314/jasr.v11i1 (inactive 23 October 2023). ISSN 1595-7470.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of October 2023 (link)
  54. Babajide Lucas, E.; Dahunsi, Bamidele I.O. (November 2004). "Harvesting, processing and utilisation of rattan canes in Western Nigeria". The Southern African Forestry Journal. 202 (1): 37–44. doi:10.1080/20702620.2004.10431788. ISSN 1029-5925. S2CID 82261046.
  55. Odugbemi, Tolu (2008). Outlines and Pictures of Medicinal Plants from Nigeria. Tolu Odugbemi. ISBN 978-978-48712-7-3.
  56. Ladapo, H. L.; Oyegoke, O. O.; Bello, R. O. (20 July 2017). "Utilization of vast Nigeria's bamboo resources for economic growth: a review". Journal of Research in Forestry, Wildlife and Environment. 9 (2): 29–35. ISSN 2141-1778.
  57. Gibson, Clark C.; McKean, Margaret A.; Ostrom, Elinor, eds. (9 June 2000). People and Forests: Communities, Institutions, and Governance. The MIT Press. doi:10.7551/mitpress/5286.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-262-27380-0.
  58. Ostrom, Elinor; Nagendra, Harini (19 December 2006). "Insights on linking forests, trees, and people from the air, on the ground, and in the laboratory". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 103 (51): 19224–19231. doi:10.1073/pnas.0607962103. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 1838564. PMID 17088538.
  59. Ezebilo, Eugene E. (11 February 2011). "Local participation in forest and biodiversity conservation in a Nigerian rain forest". International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology. 18 (1): 42–47. doi:10.1080/13504509.2011.544389. ISSN 1350-4509. S2CID 154808487.
  60. Ado, Samuel Joseph; Ejidike, Bernadette Nwandu; Adetola, Bukola (3 April 2023). "Sustainable biodiversity management in the Zamfara Sahel, Nigeria". Biodiversity. 24 (1–2): 85–95. doi:10.1080/14888386.2023.2187458. ISSN 1488-8386. S2CID 257864064.
  61. Moos, Christine; Bebi, Peter; Schwarz, Massimiliano; Stoffel, Markus; Sudmeier-Rieux, Karen; Dorren, Luuk (1 February 2018). "Ecosystem-based disaster risk reduction in mountains". Earth-Science Reviews. 177: 497–513. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2017.12.011. ISSN 0012-8252.
  62. Edet, Daniel; Ijeomah, Henry (2012). "Preliminary assessment of tree species diversity in Afi Mountain Wildlife Sanctuary, Southern Nigeria". Agriculture and Biology Journal of North America. 3 (13): 486–492. doi:10.5251/abjna.2012.3.12.486.492.
  63. Amusa, T. O.; Omonu, C.; Olabode, E.; Newton, N. J. (20 July 2017). "Population status and distribution of forest elephants (Loxodonta cyclotis Matschie, 1900) in Okomu National Park and Omo Forest Reserve, South-Western Nigeria". Journal of Research in Forestry, Wildlife and Environment. 9 (2): 44–56. ISSN 2141-1778.
  64. Primates in peril : the world's 25 most endangered primates, 2008-2010. IUCN. 2009. ISBN 978-1-934151-34-1.
  65. "FOSA Country Report : Nigeria". www.fao.org. Retrieved 17 May 2023.
  66. "The Main Threats to Biodiversity in Nigeria". Majorwaves Energy Report. 1 September 2018. Retrieved 17 May 2023.
  67. Salami 1, Nurudeen 2, Ringim 3, Kaseem 1,Tunde 2, Abubakar 3 (April 2018). "Status of Forest Ecosystem and Its Conservation in Nigeria". ResearchGate.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  68. "Deforestation on the rise as poverty soars in Nigeria". Mongabay Environmental News. 24 March 2022. Retrieved 18 May 2023.
  69. Fasona, Mayowa; Adeonipekun, Peter Adegbenga; Agboola, Oludare; Akintuyi, Akinlabi; Bello, Adedoyin; Ogundipe, Oluwatoyin; Soneye, Alabi; Omojola, Ademola (2018). "Drivers of Deforestation and Land-Use Change in Southwest Nigeria". Handbook of Climate Change Resilience. pp. 1–24. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-71025-9_139-1. ISBN 978-3-319-71025-9. S2CID 134034835.
  70. Enaruvbe, Glory O.; Atafo, Ozien P. (2 January 2016). "Analysis of deforestation pattern in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria". Journal of Land Use Science. 11 (1): 113–130. Bibcode:2016JLUS...11..113E. doi:10.1080/1747423X.2014.965279. S2CID 128428525.
  71. "Habitat Fragmentation: Definition & Examples". study.com. Retrieved 18 May 2023.
  72. "Wildlife Trafficking: Why battling this illicit trade is crucial | ICE". www.ice.gov. Retrieved 18 May 2023.
  73. KKIENERM. "Wildlife, Forest & Fisheries Crime Module 1 Key Issues: Implications of Wildlife Trafficking". www.unodc.org. Retrieved 18 May 2023.
  74. Mozer, Annika; Prost, Stefan (December 2023). "An introduction to illegal wildlife trade and its effects on biodiversity and society". Forensic Science International: Animals and Environments. 3: 100064. doi:10.1016/j.fsiae.2023.100064. S2CID 257016784.
  75. "Combating Wildlife Trafficking". www.wabicc.org. Retrieved 18 May 2023.
  76. "The Deforestation of the Upper Guinean Forest | West Africa". eros.usgs.gov. Retrieved 18 May 2023.
  77. "Deforestation in Nigeria: causes, effects, and solutions". www.green.earth. Retrieved 18 May 2023.
  78. Bebbington, Anthony J.; Humphreys Bebbington, Denise; Sauls, Laura Aileen; Rogan, John; Agrawal, Sumali; Gamboa, César; Imhof, Aviva; Johnson, Kimberly; Rosa, Herman; Royo, Antoinette; Toumbourou, Tessa; Verdum, Ricardo (2018). "Resource extraction and infrastructure threaten forest cover and community rights". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 115 (52): 13164–13173. Bibcode:2018PNAS..11513164B. doi:10.1073/pnas.1812505115. PMC 6310830. PMID 30509982.
  79. "Nigeria". LandLinks. Retrieved 18 May 2023.
  80. "Infrastructure and Extraction: A Host of Deforestation | World Rainforest Movement". www.wrm.org.uy. Retrieved 18 May 2023.
  81. "How Infrastructure Development is Depleting the Forest Cover | Management Innovation eXchange". www.managementexchange.com. Retrieved 18 May 2023.
  82. "Climate change in Nigeria: Impacts and responses". www.preventionweb.net. 13 November 2019. Retrieved 18 May 2023.
  83. "Climate change may bring big ecosystem changes". Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet. Retrieved 18 May 2023.
  84. "How climate change is disrupting ecosystems". ScienceDaily. Retrieved 18 May 2023.
  85. "Effects of Climate Change on Ecology | Center for Science Education". scied.ucar.edu. Retrieved 18 May 2023.
  86. Malhi, Yadvinder; Franklin, Janet; Seddon, Nathalie; Solan, Martin; Turner, Monica G.; Field, Christopher B.; Knowlton, Nancy (2020). "Climate change and ecosystems: threats, opportunities and solutions". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 375 (1794): 20190104. doi:10.1098/rstb.2019.0104. PMC 7017779. PMID 31983329.
  87. "Deforestation on the rise as poverty soars in Nigeria". Mongabay Environmental News. 24 March 2022. Retrieved 10 June 2023.
  88. "Deforestation in Nigeria: causes, effects, and solutions". www.green.earth. Retrieved 10 June 2023.
  89. Orr, David W (May 1990). "Environmental Education and Ecological Literacy". The Education Digest. 55 (9): 49. ProQuest 218178696.
  90. Ikemeh, Rachel (November 2013). "Sustainable forest management in a human dominated landscape and its implications for biodiversity conservation: a Nigerian lowland forest perspective". Research and Reports in Biodiversity Studies. 3: 9–23. doi:10.2147/RRBS.S35442.
  91. "Experience of Implementing National Forestry Programmes in Nigeria". www.fao.org. Retrieved 18 May 2023.
  92. Tang, Xiaolan; Adesina, John Adekunle (2022). "Biodiversity Conservation of National Parks and Nature-Protected Areas in West Africa: The Case of Kainji National Park, Nigeria". Sustainability. 14 (12): 7322. doi:10.3390/su14127322.
  93. Amusa, Tajudeen (5 April 2020). "Nigeria's nature reserves need more help to protect biodiversity". The Conversation. Retrieved 18 May 2023.
  94. Neuenschwander, Peter; Bown, Deni; Hèdégbètan, Georges C.; Adomou, Aristide (12 August 2015). "Long-term conservation and rehabilitation of threatened rain forest patches under different human population pressures in West Africa". Nature Conservation. 13: 21–46. doi:10.3897/natureconservation.13.6539.
  95. "Creating a New Sanctuary for the Cross River Gorilla". Rainforest Trust. Retrieved 23 May 2023.
  96. Isikhuemen, ekeoba M. (1 January 2014). "Rainforest degradation in southern Nigeria: role of forestry institutions". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  97. Aide, T. Mitchell; Zimmerman, Jess K.; Pascarella, John B.; Rivera, Luis; Marcano-Vega, Humfredo (December 2000). "Forest Regeneration in a Chronosequence of Tropical Abandoned Pastures: Implications for Restoration Ecology". Restoration Ecology. 8 (4): 328–338. doi:10.1046/j.1526-100x.2000.80048.x. S2CID 84970509.
  98. Akpan-Ebe, Isidore Nelson (1 July 2017). "Reforestation in Nigeria: History, current practice and future perspectives". Reforesta (3): 105–115. doi:10.21750/REFOR.3.09.33.
  99. David Lamb and Don Gilmour. (2003). Rehabilitation and Restoration of Degraded Forests. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK and WWF, Gland, Switzerland. x +110 pp.
  100. Read "Sustainable Agriculture and the Environment in the Humid Tropics" at NAP.edu. 1993. doi:10.17226/1985. ISBN 978-0-309-04749-4.
  101. Adenle, Ademola A.; Boillat, Sébastien; Speranza, Chinwe Ifejika (2022). "Key dimensions of land users' perceptions of land degradation and sustainable land management in Niger State, Nigeria". Environmental Challenges. 8: 100544. Bibcode:2022EnvCh...800544A. doi:10.1016/j.envc.2022.100544. S2CID 248637528.
  102. Altieri, M.A. (1995) Agroecology: the science of sustainable agriculture, Westview Press, Boulder, Colorado
  103. Segniagbeto, Gabriel Hoinsoudé; Assou, Délagnon; Agbessi, Eric Koffi G.; Atsri, Honam Komina; D'Cruze, Neil; Auliya, Mark; Fa, Julia E.; Luiselli, Luca (June 2021). "Insights into the status and distribution of pangolins in Togo (West Africa)" (PDF). African Journal of Ecology. 59 (2): 342–349. doi:10.1111/aje.12809. S2CID 226342276.
  104. Bruijnzeel, L. A., Scatena, F. N., & Hamilton, L. S. (Eds.). (2011). Tropical montane cloud forests: science for conservation and management. Cambridge University Press.
  105. Kammesheidt, Ludwig (May 2002). "Perspectives on Secondary Forest Management in Tropical Humid Lowland America". Ambio. 31 (3): 243–250. doi:10.1579/0044-7447-31.3.243. PMID 12164135. S2CID 20833908.
  106. Brooks, J. J., Neary, J., Planner, P., Asuquo, B. E., & Director, M. (2007). A Critical Needs Assessment for Collaborative Ecotourism Development Linked to Protected Areas in Cross River State, Nigeria. United States Forest Service International Collaboration with the Cross River State Tourism Bureau, cross River State Forestry Commission, and Cross River National Park. Washington: The United States Forest Service Department of Agriculture International Programs Office.
  107. Mainka, S.A. and Trivedi, M. (eds.). (2002). Links between Biodiversity Conservation, Livelihoods and Food Security: The sustainable use of wild species for meat. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. vi + 135pp.
  108. Oates, J. F., Sunderland-Groves, J., Bergl, R., Dunn, A., Nicholas, A., Takang, E., ... & Williamson, E. A. (2007). Regional action plan for the conservation of the Cross River gorilla (Gorilla gorilla diehli). IUCN/SSC Primate Specialist Group and Conservation International. Chicago
  109. Morgan, B. J., Adeleke, A., Bassey, T., Bergl, R., Dunn, A., Fotso, R., ... & Williamson, E. A. (2011). Regional action plan for the conservation of the Nigeria–Cameroon chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes ellioti). IUCN/SSC Primate Specialist Group and Zoological Society of San Diego.
  110. Phil-Eze, P. O.; Okoro, I. C. (May 2009). "Sustainable biodiversity conservation in the Niger Delta: a practical approach to conservation site selection". Biodiversity and Conservation. 18 (5): 1247–1257. doi:10.1007/s10531-008-9451-z. S2CID 25634299.
  111. Terborgh, J., van Schaik, C., Davenport, L., & Rao, M. (Eds.). (2002). Making parks work: strategies for preserving tropical nature. Island Press.
  112. Atuo, Fidelis Akunke; Fu, Jun; O’Connell, Timothy John; Agida, Jonathan Akomaye; Agaldo, Jennifer Arubemi (June 2020). "Coupling law enforcement and community-based regulations in support of compliance with biodiversity conservation regulations". Environmental Conservation. 47 (2): 104–112. Bibcode:2020EnvCo..47..104A. doi:10.1017/S0376892920000107. S2CID 218798491.
  113. Ebeku, K. S.A. (March 2004). "Biodiversity Conservation in Nigeria: An Appraisal of the Legal Regime in Relation to the Niger Delta Area of the Country". Journal of Environmental Law. 16 (3): 361–375. doi:10.1093/jel/16.3.361.
  114. Stuart, S. N., Stuart, S. N., Adams, R. J., & Jenkins, M. (1990). Biodiversity in sub-saharan Africa and its islands: conservation, management, and sustainable use (Vol. 6). IUCN.
  115. Ezebilo, Eugene E. (11 February 2011). "Local participation in forest and biodiversity conservation in a Nigerian rain forest". International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology. 18 (1): 42–47. doi:10.1080/13504509.2011.544389. ISSN 1350-4509. S2CID 154808487.
  116. Wakawa, L.D.; Ogana, F.N.; Adeniy, T.E. (31 January 2019). "State of a Lowland Tropical Forest in South-West Nigeria". Journal of Tropical Forestry and Environment. 8 (2). doi:10.31357/jtfe.v8i2.3764.
  117. Ardoin, Nicole M.; Bowers, Alison W.; Gaillard, Estelle (January 2020). "Environmental education outcomes for conservation: A systematic review". Biological Conservation. 241: 108224. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2019.108224.
This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.