IBM PS/2

With certain models to the IBM PS/2 line, Micro Channel Architecture (MCA) was also introduced.[7] MCA was conceptually similar to the channel architecture of the IBM System/360 mainframes. MCA was technically superior to ISA and allowed for higher speed communications within the system. The majority of MCA's features would be seen in later buses with the exception of: streaming-data procedure, channel-check reporting, error logging[8] and internal bus-level video pass-through for devices like the IBM 8514. Transfer speeds were on par with the much later PCI standard. MCA allowed one-to-one, card to card, and multi-card to processor simultaneous transaction management which is a feature of the PCI-X bus format.

Bus mastering capability, bus arbitration, and a primitive form of plug-and-play management of hardware were all benefits of MCA. Gilbert Held in his 2000 book Server Management observes: "MCA used an early (and user-hostile) version of what we know now as 'Plug-N′-Play', requiring a special setup disk for each machine and each card."[9] MCA never gained wide acceptance outside of the PS/2.

When setting up the card with its disk, all choices for interrupts and other changes were accomplished automatically by the PC reading the old configuration from the floppy disk. This made necessary changes, then recorded the new configuration to the floppy disk. This meant that the user must keep that same floppy disk matched to that particular PC. For a small organization with a few PCs, this was annoying, but less expensive and time-consuming than bringing in a PC technician to do installation. But for large organizations with hundreds or even thousands of PCs, permanently matching each PC with its own floppy disk was a logistical nightmare. Without the original, (and correctly updated) floppy disk, no changes could be made to the PC's cards.

In addition to the technical setup, legally, royalties were required for each MCA-compatible machine sold. There was nothing unique in IBM insisting on payment of royalties on the use of its patents applied to Micro Channel-based machines. Up until that time, some companies had failed to pay IBM for the use of its patents on the earlier generation of Personal Computer.

The PS/2 IBM Model M keyboard used the same 101-key layout of the previous IBM PC/AT Extended keyboard, itself derived from the original IBM PC keyboard.[7] European variants had 102 keys with the addition of an extra key to the right of the left Shift key.

The original IBM PS/2 mouse

PS/2 connection ports (later colored purple for keyboard and green for mouse, according to PC 97) were once commonly used for connecting input devices.

PS/2 systems introduced a new specification for the keyboard and mouse interfaces, which are still in use today (though increasingly supplanted by USB devices) and are thus called "PS/2" interfaces. The PS/2 keyboard interface, inspired by Apple's ADB interface, was electronically identical to the long-established AT interface, but the cable connector was changed from the 5-pin DIN connector to the smaller 6-pin mini-DIN interface. The same connector and a similar synchronous serial interface was used for the PS/2 mouse port.

The initial desktop Model 50 and Model 70 also featured a new cableless internal design, based on use of interposer circuit boards to link the internal drives to the planar (motherboard). Additionally, these machines could be largely disassembled and reassembled for service without tools.

Additionally, the PS/2 introduced a new software data area known as the Extended BIOS Data Area (EBDA). Its primary use was to add a new buffer area for the dedicated mouse port. This also required making a change to the "traditional" BIOS Data Area (BDA) which was then required to point to the base address of the EBDA.

Another new PS/2 innovation was the introduction of bidirectional parallel ports which, in addition to their traditional use for connecting a printer, could now function as a high-speed data transfer interface. This allowed the use of new hardware such as parallel port scanners, CD-ROM drives, and also enhanced the capabilities of printers by allowing them to communicate with the host PC and send back signals instead of simply being a passive output device.

Most of the initial range of PS/2 models were equipped with a new frame buffer known as the Video Graphics Array, or VGA for short. This effectively replaced the previous EGA standard.[7] VGA increased graphics memory to 256 KB and provided for resolutions of 640×480 with 16 colors, and 320 × 200 with 256 colors. VGA also provided a palette of 262,144 colors (as opposed to the EGA palette of 64 colors). The IBM 8514 and later XGA computer display standards were also introduced on the PS/2 line.

Key monitors and their maximum resolutions:

• 8504: 12″, 640 × 480, 60 Hz non-interlaced, 1991, monochrome
• 8507: 19″, 1024 × 768, 43.5 Hz interlaced, 1988, monochrome
• 8511: 14″, 640 × 480, 60 Hz non-interlaced, 1987
• 8512: 14″, 640 × 480, 60 Hz non-interlaced, 1987
• 8513: 12″, 640 × 480, 60 Hz non-interlaced, 1987
• 8514: 16″, 1024 × 768, 43.5 Hz interlaced, 1987
• 8515: 14″, 1024 × 768, 43.5 Hz interlaced, 1991
• 8516: 14″, 1024 × 768, 43.5 Hz interlaced, 1991
• 8518: 14″, 640 × 480, 75 Hz non-interlaced, 1992
• 9515: 14″, 1024 × 768, 43.5 Hz interlaced, 1992
• 9517: 16″, 1280 × 1024, 53 Hz interlaced, 1991
• 9518: 14″, 640 × 480, non-interlaced, 1992
• 38F4737: 10", 640 × 480, non-interlaced, 1989, amber monochrome plasma screen; this display was exclusive to models P70 and P75

In truth, all XGA 1024 × 768 monitors are multimode, as XGA works as an add-on card to a built-in VGA and transparently passes the VGA signal through when not operating in a high-resolution mode. All of the listed 85xx displays can therefore sync 640×480 at 60 Hz (or 720 × 400 at 70 Hz) in addition to any higher mode they may also be capable of. This however is not true of the 95xx models (and some unlisted 85xx's), which are specialist workstation displays designed for use with the XGA-2 or Image Adapter/A cards, and whose fixed frequencies all exceed that of basic VGA – the lowest of their commonly available modes instead being 640 × 480 at 75 Hz, if not something much higher still. It is also worth noting that these were still merely dual- or "multiple-frequency" monitors, not variable-frequency (also known as multisync); in particular, despite running happily at 640 × 480, 720 × 400 and 1024 × 768, an (e.g.) 8514 cannot sync the otherwise common intermediate 800 × 600 SVGA resolution, even at the relatively low 50 to 56 Hz refresh rates initially used.

Although the design of these adapters did not become an industry standard as VGA did, their 1024 × 768 pixel resolution was subsequently widely adopted as a standard by other manufacturers, and XGA became a synonym for this screen resolution. The lone exception were the bottom-rung 8086-based Model 25 and 30, which had a cut-down version of VGA referred to as MCGA; the 286 models came with VGA. This supported CGA graphics modes, VGA 320 × 200 256 color and 640 × 480 monochrome mode, but not EGA or color 640 × 480.

MCA IBM XGA-2 Graphics Card

All of the new PS/2 graphics systems (whether MCGA, VGA, 8514, or later XGA) used a 15-pin D-sub connector for video out. This used analog RGB signals, rather than four or six digital color signals as on previous CGA and EGA monitors. The digital signals limited the color gamut to a fixed 16- or 64-color palette with no room for expansion. In contrast, any color depth (bits per primary) can be encoded into the analog RGB signals so the color gamut can be increased arbitrarily by using wider (more bits per sample) DACs and a more sensitive monitor. The connector was also compatible with analog grayscale displays. Unlike earlier systems such as MDA and Hercules, this was transparent to software, so all programs supporting the new standards could run unmodified whichever type of display was attached. On the other hand, whether the display was color or monochrome was undetectable to software, so selection between application displays optimized for color or monochrome, in applications that supported both, required user intervention. These grayscale displays were relatively inexpensive during the first few years the PS/2 was available, and they were very commonly purchased with lower-end models.

The VGA connector became the de facto standard for connecting monitors and projectors on both PC and non-PC hardware over the course of the early 1990s, replacing a variety of earlier connectors.

Some PS/2 models used a quick-attachment socket on the back of the floppy drive which is incompatible with a standard 5.25" floppy connector.

Close-up of unusual 72-pin MCA internal hard drive connector

Apple had first popularized the 3.5" floppy on the Macintosh line and IBM brought them to the PC in 1986 with the PC Convertible. In addition, they could be had as an optional feature on the XT and AT. The PS/2 line used entirely 3.5" drives which assisted in their quick adoption by the industry, although the lack of 5.25" drive bays in the computers created problems later on in the 1990s as they could not accommodate internal CD-ROM drives. In addition, the lack of built-in 5.25" floppy drives meant that PS/2 users could not immediately run the large body of existing IBM-compatible software.[10] However IBM made available optional external 5.25" drives, with internal adapters for the early PS/2 models, to enable data transfer.

3.5" DD and HD floppies

In the initial lineup, IBM used 720 KB double density (DD) capacity drives on the 8086-based models and 1440 KB high density (HD) on the 80286-based and higher models. By the end of the PS/2 line they had moved to a somewhat standardized capacity of 2880 KB.

The PS/2 floppy drives lacked a capacity detector. 1440 KB floppies had a hole so that drives could identify them from 720 KB floppies, preventing users from formatting the smaller capacity disks to the higher capacity (doing so would work, but with a higher tendency of data loss). Clone manufacturers implemented the hole detection, but IBM did not. As a result of this a 720 KB floppy could be formatted to 1440 KB in a PS/2, but the resulting floppy would only be readable by a PS/2 machine.[11]

PS/2s primarily used Mitsubishi floppy drives and did not use a separate Molex power connector; the data cable also contained the power supply lines. As the hardware aged the drives often malfunctioned due to bad quality capacitors.

The PS/2 used several different types of internal hard drives. Early models used MFM or ESDI drives. Some desktop models used combo power/data cables similar to the floppy drives. Later models used DBA ESDI or Parallel SCSI. Typically, desktop PS/2 models only permitted use of one hard drive inside the computer case. Additional storage could be attached externally using the optional SCSI interface.

Later PS/2 models introduced the 72-pin SIMM[12] which became the de facto standard for RAM modules by the mid-1990s in mid-to-late 486 and nearly all Pentium desktop systems. 72-pin SIMMs were 32/36 bits wide and replaced the old 30-pin SIMM (8/9-bit) standard. The older SIMMs were much less convenient because they had to be installed in sets of two or four to match the width of the CPU's 16-bit (Intel 80286 and 80386SX) or 32-bit (80386 and 80486) data bus, and would have been extremely inconvenient to use in Pentium systems (which featured a 64-bit memory bus). 72-pin SIMMs were also made with greater capacities (starting at 1mb and ultimately reaching 128 MB, vs 256 KB to 16 MB and more commonly no more than 4 MB for 30-pin) and in a more finely graduated range (powers of 2, instead of powers of 4).

Many PS/2 models also used proprietary IBM SIMMs and could not be fitted with commonly available types. However industry standard SIMMs could be modified to work in PS/2 machines if the SIMM-presence and SIMM-type detection bridges, or associated contacts, were correctly rewired.

PS/2 N33SX laptop (1992)

IBM also produced several portable and laptop PS/2s, including the Model L40 (ISA-bus 386SX), N33 (IBM's first notebook-format computer from year 1991, Model 8533, 386SX), N51 (386SX/SLC), P70 (386DX) and P75 (486DX2).

The IBM ThinkPad 700C, aside from being labeled "700C PS/2" on the case, featured MCA and a 486SLC CPU.

The 6152 Academic System was a workstation computer developed by IBM's Academic Information Systems (ACIS) division for the university market introduced in February 1988. The 6152 was based on the PS/2 Model 60, adding a RISC Adapter Card on the Micro Channel bus. This card was a co-processor that enabled the 6152 to run ROMP software compiled for IBM's Academic Operating System (AOS), a version of BSD UNIX for the ROMP that was only available to select colleges and universities.[13]

The RISC Adapter Card contained the ROMP-C microprocessor (an enhanced version of the ROMP that first appeared in the IBM RT PC workstations), a memory management unit (the ROMP had virtual memory), a floating-point coprocessor, and up to 8 MB of memory for use by the ROMP.[14] The 6152 was the first computer to use the ROMP-C, which would later be introduced in new RT PC models.[15]

• Burton, Greg. IBM PC and PS/2 pocket reference. NDD (the old dealer channel), 1991.
• Byers, T.J. IBM PS/2: A Reference Guide. Intertext Publications, 1989. ISBN 0-07-009525-6.
• Dalton, Richard and Mueller, Scott. IBM PS/2 Handbook . Que Publications, 1989. ISBN 0-88022-334-0.
• Held, Gilbert. IBM PS/2: User's Reference Manual. John Wiley & Sons Inc., 1989. ISBN 0-471-62150-1.
• Hoskins, Jim. IBM PS/2. John Wiley & Sons Inc., fifth revised edition, 1992. ISBN 0-471-55195-3.
• Leghart, Paul M. The IBM PS/2 in-depth report. Pachogue, NY: Computer Technology Research Corporation, 1988.
• Newcom, Kerry. A Closer Look at IBM PS/2 Microchannel Architecture. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1988.
• Norton, Peter. Inside the IBM PC and PS/2. Brady Publishing, fourth edition 1991. ISBN 0-13-465634-2.
• Outside the IBM PC and PS/2: Access to New Technology. Brady Publishing, 1992. ISBN 0-13-643586-6.
• Shanley, Tom. IBM PS/2 from the Inside Out. Addison-Wesley, 1991. ISBN 0-201-57056-4.